Grand Canyon Forests Partnership
A Research Reference Guide

By

Tischa A. Muñoz
Megan Van Horne
GrandCanyon Forests Foundation
2601 North Fort Valley Road
Flagstaff, Arizona 86001

Carl Edminster
Research Plan Project Leader
Southwest Forest Science Complex
2500 South Pine Knoll Drive
Flagstaff, Arizona 86001

Introduction

In an effort to increase information and scientific basis for implementing forest ecosystem restoration and fuels reduction management in wildland-urban interface areas of Flagstaff, Arizona, the Grand Canyon Forests Partnership (GCFP) and the U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, developed a Research Plan in order to provide knowledge and tools for application, as well as adaptive management, by land managers and community partners (RMRS, GCFP and Forest Products Laboratory Research Plan-Draft). This GCFP Research Reference Guide highlights the various research projects included in the Research Plan that have been or are being conducted in the wildland-urban interface areas of Flagstaff. The Guide also includes other pertinent research projects that have been presented in forest restoration conferences by the Ecological Restoration Institute at Northern Arizona University during Spring 2000 & 2001. The Guide's purpose, therefore, is to make information accessible to land managers and GCFP Advisory Board members, as well as members of the community-at-large, including academicians, politicians and policy makers, conservationists and others, and to further the research, monitoring and adaptive management efforts of the Partnership.

The information herein is presented in the form of project abstracts or brief descriptions, along with titles, researchers' names and their contact information, in an attempt to make all of the information compact and accessible. It is ordered in sections reflecting the subject matter beginning with biological/ecological reports, progressing to social components (including management implications) and concluding with economic and utilization research.

It was rather difficult to "draw a line," whether it be subject matter or geographically, and only include research directly related to GCFP efforts, for there is so much more applicable research that, although indirectly, influences planning and management of Partnership projects. We apologize if any research that could contribute to this collection has been omitted. As this Guide will be periodically updated, contacting either the Grand Canyon Forests Foundation or the Rocky Mountain Research Station will guarantee a review of such research for future editions of the Research Guide. For this first edition we have focused primarily on GCFP projects particularly (primarily the Fort Valley Ecosystem Restoration Project), or on ponderosa pine restoration research being conducted within the Flagstaff wildland-urban interface (such as at the Gus Pearson Natural Area or Taylor Woods, both adjacent to the Partnership's Fort Valley project). Consequently, restoration research conducted at Mt. Trumbull by the Ecological Restoration Institute, the Bureau of Land Management and others has been purposefully omitted, but may be found in the publication: "Restoration of Ecosystem Health in Southwestern Forests; Comprehensive Report; October 1, 1995 to September 30, 2000."

It is our sincere hope that the information presented is clear to the reader and useful in aiding the Grand Canyon Forests Partnership and other restoration efforts to protect and restore the ponderosa pine forests in Flagstaff and beyond.

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The Grand Canyon Forests Partnership
Community-Based Forest Restoration in the U.S. Southwest

Background--The forests of the southwest have become the center of an exciting new dialogue over the future of forestry on federal lands. Over the past five years, groups ranging from appeal and litigation-oriented environmental groups to local municipalities and academic researchers have each begun working to formulate restoration-oriented forest management strategies. This emphasis on restoration distinguishes the efforts in the Southwest from comparable initiatives emphasizing "ecosystem management" or "sustainable forestry," providing the highest potential for evolving a federal forest management mission, and policies with broad public support.

The Grand Canyon Forests Partnership--The Grand Canyon Forests Partnership (GCFP) was formed during the terrifying summer of 1996. During June, July and August of that year, wildfires threatened to spread from adjacent forests into the city limits of Flagstaff, Arizona. The city narrowly averted disaster. Suddenly awakened to the immense threat surrounding it, representatives of a diverse set of constituencies began meeting to try to identify approaches to forest management that could reduce catastrophic fire risk and restore forest vitality and resiliency. This effort by a broad range of groups and individuals came to be known as the Grand Canyon Forests Partnership. Though its membership has evolved from it's initial inception, the Partnership currently includes eighteen formal partners: The Arboretum at Flagstaff, Arizona Game and Fish, Arizona Public Service, Arizona State Lands Department-Division of Forestry, City of Flagstaff, Coconino County, Coconino Natural Resource Conservation District, Coconino Rural Environment Corps, Cococopai Resource Conservation and Development District, Ecological Restoration Institute at Northern Arizona University (NAU), Flagstaff Chamber of Commerce, Flagstaff Native Plant & Seed, Grand Canyon Trust, NAU School of Forestry, NAU College of Engineering and Technology, Society of American Foresters-Northern Arizona Chapter, The Nature Conservancy, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, as well as a wide variety of other participants. Cooperators include the U.S. Forest Service, Coconino National Forest, Rocky Mountain Research Lab, and the Forest Products Laboratory.

After almost two years of extensive meetings, public outreach and involvement, and scientific assessment, the Grand Canyon Forests Partnership developed a forest restoration proposal for consideration by the U.S. Forest Service. The proposal was eventually formalized in a Cooperative Agreement between the Forest Service and the Grand Canyon Forests Foundation (GCFF). The Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization initiated by the Partnership to serve as the implementing body for the Cooperative Agreement. The 18-member "Partnership" now serves as the Partnership Advisory Board guiding Foundation activities.

The entire project has received national recognition. The Partnership and Foundation have been recognized by former Vice President Gore as a National Reinvention Laboratory. It is also widely cited as one of the first efforts to evaluate and implement a landscape approach to restoration forestry. These efforts can be described using the categories of critical issues described above, or as outlined in the Partnership's objectives:

1. Restore the natural ecosystems functions-within the range of natural variability-of the ponderosa pine forests in Flagstaff's Urban Wildland Interface.
2. Manage forest fuels within the Urban Wildland Interface to reduce the risk of catastrophic fire.
3. Research, test, develop and demonstrate key ecological, economic and social dimensions of restoration efforts.

Within these categories, the primary activities of the Foundation and Partnership include:

Forest Management-Developing, advertising and supervising forest work contracts; coordinating forest treatment activities with research efforts.

Developing new economic opportunities-Develop and/or recruit sustainable businesses to utilize forest products; market forest products through a log-sort yard; mentor new enterprises.

Public Involvement-Coordinate fieldtrips; disseminate information through the media; recruit and manage volunteers.

Restoration: A New Approach to Federal Forest Management--The city of Flagstaff, population of around 55,000, is a human settlement surrounded in a sea of ponderosa pine. This portion of the southern Colorado Plateau hosts the largest contiguous block of pure ponderosa pine forests on the North American continent.

The Partnership's initial restoration efforts are focused within the forests directly surrounding Flagstaff, the urban-wildland interface. This is an area of approximately 160,000 acres, approximately 100,000 acres that is managed by the U.S. Forest Service. Within this 100,000 acres of federal land, project areas of approximately 10,000 acres will be selected each year for restoration-forestry projects.

Restoration activities are based on a comprehensive analysis of the current ecological conditions on the selected landscape. Based on this analysis, a series of treatments are then designed which combine restoration prescriptions with treatments designed to maintain and enhance habitat for critical wildlife species.

The types of activities that are being included in restoration programs include, but are not limited to:

• Thinning overly dense stands of trees, also known as "doghair thickets";
• Creating clusters of trees with interspersed open spaces for native grasses and other elements of the forest understory;
• Managing forests for a variety of ages and types of trees;
• Restoring a low-intensity fire regime;
• Reducing and controlling exotic species;
• Restoring riparian areas;
• Improving grazing practices;
• Closing and reclaiming roads that are not part of the forest road system.

In order to effectively evaluate the potential impacts of these activities-and plan treatments in ways that maintain and enhance conditions for sensitive or imperiled species-a conservation-biology landscape analysis at the 300,000 - 500,000 acre scale is being initiated encompassing the restoration treatment areas. Under a Cooperative Agreement with the Forest Service, the Foundation has the authority to determine how and who will implement treatment prescriptions to ensure these activities are in line with the Foundation's mission and principles.

Economic Viability--While restoration of ponderosa pine forest ecosystem health and reduction of catastrophic fire risk are the driving forces behind the Partnership, economic viability of the project is critical to overall success. To this end, the Foundation has initiated a series of studies to evaluate the most effective product/market/technology options that are compatible with restoration-oriented forest management and that make use of the by-products of restoration activities. Based on landscape assessment and design, the Foundation will develop an economic analysis to assist local economic development organizations, local lending institutions, and federal agencies in assessing the appropriateness of proposed forest resource enterprises.

Next Steps--In the fall of 1998, the Foundation and the Forest Service implemented a series of nine research plots testing almost 300 acres using three different levels of restoration treatments developed by ERI. Results from this research have been used to improve the prescriptions. In the next phase of the program, these improved prescriptions, along with six other treatment prescriptions developed by both research scientists and the environmental community (Grand Canyon Trust and Southwest Forest Alliance) will be implemented across 1,700 acres of Phase 1 of the 10,000-acre Fort Valley Ecosystem Restoration Project. Implementation of these treatments is scheduled for the summer of 2001. An adaptive management framework, guided by the research found within this Research Guide, will direct this and all future Partnership planning and implementation efforts.

Research and Monitoring--An extensive series of research and monitoring plots have been established throughout the initial Fort Valley treatment areas. Results from these treatments are and will continue to be evaluated during the coming years. Final modifications will then be made on prescriptions, which will then be applied across the remaining 3,500 acres to be treated in the Partnership's first 10,000-acre restoration area (Phase 2 of Fort Valley). Over 5,000 acres of the Fort Valley Ecosystem Restoration Project will receive no treatments during this phase. Non-treatment areas include wildlife set-aside areas, on-going research areas, and private lands.

All elements of the restoration program are being extensively monitored. The project has received over $500,000 in research funding annually to evaluate the effectiveness of the restoration program. The Foundation has also initiated an ongoing dialogue with scientists outside the area to encourage a broad range of review and critique from those not directly involved in the effort. Finally, the GCFP, with the publication of this Guide, will begin a citizens monitoring initiative whereby other interested publics can participate with and assist in the field monitoring of Partnership projects.

On-the-ground implementation of the restoration program is supervised by Forest Service employees with support from Foundation and Northern Arizona University staff. The Forest Service retains final authority for approval and oversight of all projects on the ground.

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Biological and Ecological Component

FIRE

Bailey1, Dr. John Duff, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Using Group Selection, Multi-Aged Management Practices to Enhance the Use of Prescribed Fire in the Southwest. (June 1999 - January 2002)
The purpose of this study is to establish permanent study plots in selected forest stands dominated by ponderosa pine on the Coconino and Kaibab National Forests in Arizona as part of the network of sites for A National Study of the Consequences of Fire and Fire Surrogate Treatments. The study will assess the effect of four core treatments replicated a total of three times. The treatments are a do-nothing control, prescribed burning only, thinning using group selection to reduce stand density only, and thinning followed by prescribed fire. Information on the spatial arrangement (vertical and horizontal), composition, and response to treatments of these ecosystem elements are crucial to understanding and predicting fire behavior, fire and thinning effects, and long-term forest ecosystem health. An understanding of the overall impact of management options is essential for improved forest management, restoring forest health, and improved fuels and fire management on National Forest System lands.
Specific tasks include: Establish a total of three replicates (blocks) of four treatment plots in each replicate. Two replicates will be located on the Coconino National Forest and one replicate will be located on the Kaibab National Forest. Plots will be 10 hectares each plus a buffer. Plot establishment will include boundary marking of plots and a grid of measurement subplots within each treatment plot. Pre-treatment field sampling will include overstory and understory structure and composition, entomology, and pathology. Marking for overstory thinning treatments will be completed on two plots within each replicate. All work will be done following protocols developed within the overall Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) Treatments Study. Plot corners and grid points will be permanently monumented, and plot corners will be located with a global positioning system. 3. Assist in design of treatments and monitoring frameworks to address research strategies appropriate for local forest stand conditions. Design issues will focus on appropriate scales for characterizing vegetation structure and composition, and associated insect and disease presence and effects.

Crawford1, Julie, Wayne Robbie2, Esteban Muldavin3, Margaret Moore6, Barbara Phillips5, George Robertson5, Sean Kyle1, and Rudy King1. 1) Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2500 S. Pine Knoll Dr., Flagstaff, AZ 86001, 2) Region 3, 3) New Mexico Natural Heritage Program, 4) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, 5) Coconino National Forest
Recovery in ponderosa pine forests after catastrophic and moderate intensity fires. (September 1997 - September 2001)
OBJECTIVES

• Understand the range of spatial and temporal variability in southwestern ponderosa pine forests
• Increase appreciation of their complexity and importance as habitat for plants, animals, and people

• Land management agencies will limit their promises as to what and how much future commodity extraction can take place in ponderosa pine forests
• Agencies will build exotic species ecology into their programs and planning
• Game and Fish Agencies will take notice of how many elk there are in winter and summer ranges in the ponderosa pine and pinyon-juniper ecosystems, and take effective actions to limit their destruction of vegetation and accelerated soil erosion

Edminster, Carl, Project Leader. Rocky Mountain Research Station, Southwest Forest Science Complex, 2500 South Pine Knoll Drive, Flagstaff, AZ 86001.
A national study of consequences of fire and fire surrogate treatments. (January 2000 - 2005)

One of thirteen sites for a national fire and fire surrogate study has been selected and implemented on the Coconino and Kaibab National Forests. The primary objective of the study is to quantify the initial effects (first five years) of four treatments that consist of: (1) untreated control, (2) prescribed fire only, (3) mechanical thinning, and (4) mechanical thinning followed by prescribed fire. The four treatments are replicated three times, with two replications on the Coconino NF and one replication on the Kaibab NF. The core response variables being measured are (a) vegetation, (b) fuel and fire behavior, (c) soils and forest floor characteristics (including relation to local hydrology), (d) wildlife, (e) entomology, (f) pathology, and (g) treatment costs and utilization as they vary across geographically isolated sites. Another of the thirteen sites will be located on the Santa Fe National Forest.

Fule 1, Dr. Pete Z. 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5018
Fire in the Wildland-Urban Interface: A Landscape Modeling Approach. (August 1999 - December 2002)
The purpose of this study is to develop an integrated landscape modeling approach to support the goals of the Grand Canyon Forests Partnership in restoring natural ecosystem functions, reducing catastrophic fire risk, and researching the implications of these efforts. The wildland-urban interface has grown dramatically in the twentieth century, while fire exclusion over the same time period has allowed fuels to accumulate and forests to grow dense around Flagstaff, creating the potential for ecologically and socially devastating wildfires. Potential fire behavior will be modeled in the interface area since fire exclusion up through future projections, comparing alternative fuel reduction and forest restoration treatments to help support decision-making by the Partnership. Modeling will build on existing interface studies and available software (Arc/Info, Imagine, Farsite) to produce rapid and inexpensive results. A strength of this approach is that the integrated data will be useful for other Partnership researchers. The landscape database will also be valuable for additional questions such as wildlife habitat changes and landscape composition and scenic beauty.
Specific tasks include: 1. Creating the model of the landscape: the Peaks landscape will be developed from Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite imagery, USGS digital elevation models, and digital raster graphics. Phase One involves initiating (not completing) the entire project on a pilot area. The pilot area will be the first two 10K treatment blocks around Flagstaff. Existing Farsite data layers will be requested from the Coconino National Forest. Land cover and fuels data will be revised and field-checked. New information for non-governmental lands will be extracted from imagery and field visits. 2. Changes in the interface: historical aerial photographs and maps will be used to trace urban growth and land-use change, such as conversion from agricultural to residential use and other urban development. 3. Changes in the forest: the effects of exclusion of the frequent fire regime and subsequent changes in forest structures will be modeled using existing dendroecological reconstructions of presettlement conditions, simulation modeling, and forest inventory data. New data on fire ecology of higher-elevation Peaks sites will begin to be assembled. 4. Testing alternatives: fire regimes and individual severe wildfire events will be simulated over the historic and contemporary landscapes, modeling the increasing fire hazard resulting from simultaneous forest fuel buildup and urban development. Future fire scenarios based on urban growth projections, drawn from city and county planning guides, will be contrasted under alternative treatments proposed by the Partnership. Detailed data already being collected in the first phase of the Partnership treatments will be used to estimate smoke and carbon dioxide emissions, biomass removal, and fire behavior, using sensitivity analysis to estimate the reliability and variability of model results. These comparisons will contribute to economic and ecological analyses, informing Partnership members and the public.

Fule1, Peter Z., Chuck McHugh2, Thomas A. Heinlein1, W. Wallace Covington1 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5018, Pete.Fule@nau.edu, 2) Coconino National Forest, AZ
Potential Fire Behavior Is Reduced Following Forest Restoration Treatments. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Thinning and burning treatments intended to restore ponderosa pine tree and fuel structures similar to pre-European settlement conditions reduced the potential intensity of wildfires. The experimental sites, located in the wildland/urban interface near Flagstaff, Arizona, averaged 473 trees/acre before thinning. Pretreatment woody fuel loads averaged 27 tons/acre, total fuels averaged 36 tons/acre, and mean canopy base height-a critical variable influencing fire movement into tree canopies-was 14 feet. Treatments in 1998-1999 raised canopy base height and thinned canopy bulk density. Broadcast burning is expected to consume 50 to 75% of the forest floor fuel load. As a result of the treatments, simulated fire intensity declined and crownfire initiation was much more rare in treated stands. Sustained canopy burning ("active crownfire") was very unlikely after treatment. We compared sites across a range of restoration prescriptions, reflecting realistic alternatives for urban interface treatments. Although forest restoration can reduce potential fire intensity, there are two important caveats: activity fuels must be removed and reduced-fuel forest structures must be maintained through continued burning or mechanical treatment.

Sackett, Stephen (retired) and Sally Haase. Pacific Research Station, Forest Fire Laboratory, 4955 Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507.
Prescribed burning intervals for continuous hazard reduction in all age ponderosa pine stands. (1976 - present)

A long-term study was begun in 1976 and will be continued by the Forest Service to evaluate the effectiveness of prescribed burning on hazard fuel reduction. Six rotations were selected (1-, 2-, 4-, 6-, 8-, and 10 year rotations) to determine how often natural stands of southwestern ponderosa pine can be burned and how long between fire applications can fire behavior be kept at a manageable level. An additional rotation was added to the study that is evaluating the effectiveness of a three-year rotation. The rotations and controls are replicated three times. Some of the variables measured include natural fuel accumulation in the three different overstory groups commonly found in southwestern ponderosa pine: mature yellow pine, poles, and saplings. Overstory and understory mortality is being followed as well as soil nutrient changes (ammonium- and nitrate-nitrogen). Soil and cambium heating has been studied extensively in conjunction with this long-term study and has lead to additional work in studying fuel mitigation methods to reduce the mortality of the mature overstory. The effectiveness of rotational burning on successful regeneration of ponderosa pine has also been determined. A like study was set up on limestone soils the following year (1977) on the Long Valley Experimental Forest and is currently being continued.

WILDLIFE

MAMMALS

Block1, William, Thomas Sisk 2, and Brett Dickson 1, 1) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Flagstaff, AZ 86001, 2) Center for Environmental Sciences and Education, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Consequences of Fire and Fire Surrogate Treatments on Birds and Small Mammals in Ponderosa Pine Forests of Arizona.
The general objective is to evaluate effects of these fuels treatments on wildlife in ponderosa pine forests of northern Arizona. More specifically, we will examine treatment effects on (1) avian community structure, (2) bird species abundance, (3) avian foraging patterns, (4) small mammal community structure, and (5) small mammal demographic characteristics. The data collected from this part of the study can be combined with similar data collected at other research sites from this national study to examine general patterns common to longleaf pine systems.
Experimental design for the national project calls for 3 experimental treatments (thinning of small trees, prescribed fire, and thinning followed by fire) and a control, to be implemented as 10-ha blocks (with suitable treated buffer), replicated 3 times (Weatherspoon 2000). While this design allows a standardized and cost-effective approach to be implemented nationwide, the vagility of the study taxa introduces questions concerning the movements and behavior of individual organisms within and between the treatment blocks. This is particularly true in the arid and relatively unproductive Southwestern ponderosa pine forests, where animal densities tend to be low.
To supplement and further inform results obtained from the standard Fire and Fire Surrogates protocols, we will examine fine-scale patterns in habitat quality and habitat use by birds and small mammals. Our objectives for this "second tier" of wildlife investigations will be to obtain a finer-grained understanding how animals utilize the treatment areas, including their responses to habitat edges, and how their spatial distribution and behavior affect the coarser patterns in distribution and abundance obtained from the standard Fire and Fire Surrogates protocols.
Because both birds and small mammals are sensitive to changes in forest structure and microclimate, and because they are capable of moving across entire experimental blocks in a matter of minutes, we hypothesize that the spatial patterning of these variables (insolation, temperature, and vapor pressure deficit) will influence the distribution, movement patterns, and habitat use by both taxa. We expect to observe movement of individuals among treatment units on a regular basis, and we hypothesize that habitat use and movement patterns near edges, for both birds and small mammals, will differ from that observed near the centers of the units, due to the close proximity of different forest structural types.
The focus on movement and fine-scaled habitat use will permit more robust analyses of treatment effects, and it should identify causal mechanisms that underlie patterns in animal abundance.

Block1, William M., 1) Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2500 S. Pine Knoll Dr., Flagstaff, AZ 86001
Effects of treatments in urban-wildland interface in ponderosa pine forest on small mammal populations and habitats. (September 1998 - Present)
OBJECTIVES

• Assess the effects of three "restoration" treatments in the urban-wildland interface on small mammal populations and habitats.

• Provide empirical information to understand effects and trade-offs of different treatments on small mammal populations and community structure
• Provide information to revise or adjust treatments to sustain or enhance small mammal populations

Dodd1, Norris L., 1) Arizona Game and Fish Department, Research Branch, PO Box 2326, Pinetop, AZ doddnbenda@cybertrails.com
Tassel-Eared Squirrel Research Implications to Ponderosa Pine Ecosystem Restoration. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25 - 27, 2000)
The Department has been conducting tassel-eared squirrel (Sciurus aberti) research in at various habitat scales since 1995. Recently completed research addressed microhabitat selection and stand-scale structural habitat relationships to population dynamics. These studies point to the importance of interlocking canopies to squirrel recruitment, selection for high canopy closure and larger trees, and characterized source versus sink habitats. Research has been ongoing since 1999 at nine 502-ha study sites, evaluating population dynamics across a landscape-scale gradient of ratio of optimum to marginal patch area (ROMPA). Mean squirrel densities assessed in April-May 1999 were linearly related to ROMPA (r=0.842, P=0.002), through optimum plot density was inversely proportional to ROMPA (r= - 0.818, P=0.007). Mean density was three times higher on optimum versus marginal plots. Juvenile recruitment was estimated in October 1999. Nearly seven times the mean number of juveniles were caught on optimum (6.8) versus marginal (1.1) sample plots (31 ha). The relationship to ROMPA was nonlinear, with highest recruitment at high (>85%) and intermediate (approx. 50%) ROMPA. Below 30 - 35% ROMPA (3 study sites) recruitment was negligible, suggesting a threshold effect. Through preliminary, insights from our research have direct implications to ponderosa pine forest restoration at the landscape-scale and maintenance of squirrel population viability.

Germaine1, Stephen S., Heather L. Germaine1, 1) Arizona Game and Fish Department, Research Branch, 2221 West Greenway Road, Phoenix, AZ 85023 warbler@cybertrails.com
Mule Deer Bed Site Characteristics in Current Conditions and Restored Ponderosa Pine Forest. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
We developed descriptive models to identify environmental variables which best classified mule deer day-beds located in current-condition and restored ponderosa pine forests. We observed >19 mule deer in the 177 beds during the summers of 1998 and 1999. Upon observation, microclimate data were collected in bed sites; data describing topography, land form, and habitat structure were collected within 2 weeks. Data from 1998 (n=117) were submitted to a discriminant analysis to identify variables that best characterized bed sites between forest types. Number of oak trees surrounding beds and horizontal screening (hiding) distance loaded into a model that correctly classified 84.0% of all bed sites. Data from 1999 (n=60) would not normalize, therefore were submitted to logistic regression analysis. Number of oak trees surrounding beds correctly classified 83.5% of all bed sites. Median relative dominance of oaks around beds was 0.0 in current-condition forests and >80% in restored forests in both years. Median screening distance was greater in restored forest types. Female mule deer day-bedded in restored forest patches, but bed site characteristics differed between current-condition and restored forest types. Retention of entire oak stands in restored areas is critical for day bedding mule deer.

Kyle, Sean C., William M. Block1, 1) Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2500 S. Pine Knoll Dr., Flagstaff, AZ 86001
Effects of wildfire severity on small mammals in northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests. (May 1997 - June 1999)
OBJECTIVES

• Determine the effects of high and moderate severity wildfire on the small mammal community and populations of deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), gray-collared chipmunks (Tamias cineriocollis), and golden-mantled ground squirrels (Spermophilus lateralis)
• Examine relationships between the abundance of deer mice, gray-collared chipmunks, and golden-mantled ground squirrels and structural habitat components in the context of a varied intensity wildfire.

• Data collection was concluded in October 1998
• Beginning data analysis and expect a completed thesis and peer-reviewed publications in mid-2000

• To contribute to the base of knowledge on the effects of wildfire on small mammal communities and populations
• To provide quantitative estimates of these effects and the importance of habitat components for these communities and populations, thereby aiding land managers in predicting potential outcomes of wildfires on small mammals and providing some goals and guidelines for prescribed natural fires

BIRDS

Dwyer1, Jill K., William M. Block1, 1) Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2500 S. Pine Knoll Dr., Flagstaff, AZ 86001
The effects of wildfire on secondary cavity-nesting birds in ponderosa pine forests of northern Arizona. (May 1997 - August 2001)
OBJECTIVES

• Estimate the relative abundance of secondary cavity-nesting birds in a severely burned and moderately burned ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest
• Determine if the abundance of natural cavities is limiting the breeding populations of secondary cavity-nesting birds
• Estimate patterns of habitat and cavity use by secondary cavity-nesting birds during the breeding season
• Determine the demography of secondary cavity-nesting birds

• The results of this research will allow managers to predict or assess the effects of fire on cavity-nesting birds and other bird communities in ponderosa pine forests. For example, these results may help managers plan for prescribed burns such as the amount and quality of snags to retain in ponderosa pine forests
• The results will provide empirical data on habitat associations beyond snags (e.g. habitat composition and structure) to aid in development of future management plans
• The results may demonstrate the use of bird boxes as a mitigation tool to maintain populations of at least one species following a catastrophic fire

Germaine1, Heather L., Stephen S. Germaine1, 1) Arizona Game and Fish Department, Research Branch, 2221 West Greenway Road, Phoenix, AZ 85023 warbler@cybertrails.com
Effect of Forest Restoration on the Reproductive Success of Western Bluebirds; A Preliminary Investigation. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Western bluebirds (Sialia mexicana) have historically been described as birds of open forest areas, with nests most often associated with oak (Quercus spp.) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). Recent declines in western bluebird populations have been attributed to the removal of decadent trees, increased interspecific competition for nest sites, and long-term, widespread denser stands than historically present. Intensive thinning and burning are being used to experimentally restore ponderosa pine forests to conditions emulating those present prior to Euro-American settlement. We monitored 20 western bluebird nests, 11 in unrestored forests and 9 in restored forests. Nests contained from 4-7 eggs, from which 3-7 nestlings hatched per nest. Nest success was 55% and 100% in the unrestored and restored forests, respectively. Nest material was examined for the presence of Protocalliphora (blow fly) larva. Eighteen percent (n=2) of nests in unrestored forests were infested with an average of 3 puparia per nest, 78% (n=7) of nests in restored forests were infested with an average of 13.9 puparia per nest. Preliminary data suggest that while nest success is greater in open forests, increased infestations of blow fly larva in these areas may reduce overall health of fledglings.

Mathiasen1, Dr. Robert L, Dr. Carol Chambers1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 Robert.Mathiasen@nau.edu
Bird Diversity and Abundance in Dwarf-Mistletoe infested and uninfested Ponderosa Pine Forests in Northern Arizona. (March 1999 - September 2001)
The purpose of this study is to understand the interactions between dwarf mistletoe infestation in ponderosa pine forests and bird diversity and abundance. Little is known regarding the interactions of fuel reduction and forest health restoration management, dwarf mistletoe infestations and passerine bird populations in ponderosa pine forests in northern Arizona. A previous study in central Colorado demonstrated a positive correlation between different severities of dwarf mistletoe infestation and the richness and abundance of several species of passerine birds. Because the effects of dwarf mistletoe infestation influence stand composition and structure (snag creation due to increased mortality and crown structure), these parasitic flowering plants may also influence the diversity and abundance of birds inhabiting dwarf mistletoe-infested forests and the potential for wildfire. The effects of management practices (thinning or prescribed burning) to decrease the potential for wildfires and restore forest health which either increase or decrease dwarf mistletoe populations may influence bird diversity and abundance in ponderosa pine forests. This study will examine the interactions between bird diversity and abundance in dwarf mistletoe-infested and uninfested ponderosa pine forests of the area around Flagstaff, Arizona, which have been managed to reduce wildfire hazard and restore forest health. The study will provide basic information on the effects of management practices on keys elements of biological diversity.
The main objectives of the study are: (1) determine bird diversity and abundance in ponderosa pine forests with different severities of dwarf mistletoe infestation around Flagstaff, Arizona; (2) compare the diversity and abundance of birds in ponderosa pine forests treated to reduce fuel loads and restore forest health in dwarf mistletoe-infested and uninfested pine stands in the interface; (3) re-sampling all study plots 6 times for birds and sampling an additional 320 1/10th acre stand characterization plots. In addition detailed behavioral observations of birds will be conducted in stands moderately and severely infested by dwarf mistletoe; and (4)study bird use of dwarf mistletoe-induced witches' brooms in the ponderosa pine stands already sampled for bird diversity and abundance. Approximately 100 pairs of trees will be examined.

REPTILES

Germaine1, Heather L., Stephen S. Germaine1, 1) Arizona Game and Fish Department, Research Branch, 2221 W. Greenway Rd., Phoenix, AZ 85023 warbler@cybertrails.com
Habitat Relationship of Lizards in a Fire Suppressed Northern Arizona Sky-Island Ponderosa Pine Forest. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Putting the Pieces TogetherS/April 25-28,2001)
We collected habitat, abundance, and demography data for lizard species present in a Northern Arizona sky island ponderosa forest that has been subjected to active fire suppression for the past century. During May - October of 1997 - 1999 we employed 70 pitfall arrays to sample lizards over 6,990 array-days. Captured lizards were sexed, measured, and marked, allowing estimates of abundance within separate age classes. At each array we measured variables describing vegetative cover type, within-stand structure, and ground cover/substrate type. Lizard variables were compared among cover types, stand structures, and substrate types using ANOV/Turkey means comparisons of Mann-Whitney U tests. Sceloporus graciosus, a widely distributed habitat generalist, best respond to cover type and within stand scale differences. Adult and hatching abundance and overall reproductive success were highest in the most open cover types and forest stands; all denser cover types and stands appeared to be population "sinks" for this species. Eumeces skiltonianus, a locally distributed habitat specialist, did not respond to differences in vegetative cover type, but appeared more sensitive, to within-stand and substrate level differences. Juvenile E. skiltonianus were more abundant in deciduous dominated stands than any other type, while adult and hatchling abundance did not differ.

INSECTS

Wagner1, Dr. Michael R., 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Ants and Ground Beetles as Indicators of Ecosystem Condition in Ponderosa Pine Forests. (July 1999 - June 2002)
The purpose of this study is to monitor changes in biodiversity, community structure, and abundance of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in southwestern ponderosa pine forests treated with fuels management and forest health restoration treatments. Ants and ground beetles are selected for this study because there is good quantitative data in the literature that links these biological indicators with microbial biomass, soil nitrogen transformation, and other difficult to assess soil characteristics. These insects are essential components to the soil food web, regulate the abundance and diversity of understory plants and support higher trophic levels. There is preliminary data on the influence of stand level treatments on carabid populations. In addition, direct measurements of insect diversity are excellent indicators of overall site biodiversity. There is abundant literature describing the taxonomy, biology, and ecology of these insect taxa. Both groups have modest overall diversity (15 to 25 species) making identification manageable for study purposes.
Specific tasks include: 1. Conduct a survey of ants and ground beetle populations on study plots associated with fire, fuels management, and forest health restoration treatments. Within each plot, a pitfall trap array of five traps for carabids and three sticky band and three pit traps for ants will be established. Trapping is conducted for five continuous days in each of four months during the summer season (May, June, July, August). Insects are identified, classified by guild, and various diversity indices. A functional group approach will be used to analyze assemblages of insects. Appropriate statistical procedures will be applied to sampled and derived data. Linkages to other research that is experimentally testing the correlation between population measures of these insect guilds and a wide range of soil and understory characteristics will be explored. 2. Derive from field collected data various indices of biodiversity and correlate these with other stand data collected by other researchers (such as understory diversity).

Wagner1, Dr. Michael R., 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 Michael.Wagner@nau.edu
Coarse Woody Debris Management, Bark Beetles, and Forest Health in Ponderosa Pine Forests. (August 1999 - March 2002)
The purpose of this study is to develop information to guide the management of coarse woody debris in forest health restoration activities. Stand management and thinning have been proposed to reduce the density of ponderosa pine forests throughout the Southwest. Because of historic low levels of stand management, current proposed stand treatments will generate large volumes of coarse woody debris (snags, fallen logs, slash). Coarse woody debris can be highly beneficial in providing habitat for a wide variety of organisms that contribute to biodiversity and essential ecosystem function and ultimately may be a major component in forest health. Insects, especially dendrophagus wood borers and bark beetles are major agents that generate and contribute to decomposition of coarse woody debris. However the creation of coarse woody debris by thinning can provide highly suitable habitat for engraver beetles, Ips spp., and perhaps other beetles that build populations in coarse woody debris and then kill nearby healthy trees. Strong preliminary data is available and some literature supports the hypothesis that coarse woody debris can be produced at certain times of the year and in certain sizes that will provide the positive habitat benefits without increasing the risk of bark beetle caused mortality. Prescribed fire may modify the suitability of coarse woody debris for some insects; therefore, this study will examine proposed coarse woody debris treatments under different prescribed fire scenarios. Natural enemies that feed on wood boring insects in coarse woody debris may well also feed on primary bark beetles and may contribute to limiting bark beetle populations.
The main objectives of the study are: 1. Review literature on the agents of coarse woody debris (CWD) recruitment, patterns and scales of CWD recruitment and management of CWD for control of bark beetles. 2. Assess methods to manage engraver beetles by manipulating bolt size, season of bolt generation and prescribed fire regime. 3. Compare natural enemy populations on trees naturally killed by bark beetles in stands with and without abundant coarse woody debris. 4. Expand current studies to determine engraver beetle flight period in northern Arizona. 5. Assess possible seasonal shifts in engraver beetle response to pheromones. 6. Expand evaluation of northern Arizona engraver beetle populations by reciprocal transfer of ponderosa pine logs between Arizona and Montana to evaluate whether there is variation in host plant traits between locations.

Wagner1, Dr. Michael R., Dr. Thomas E. Kolb1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Insect Population and Tree Resistance Responses to Restoration Thinning Treatments in Ponderosa Pine Forests. (August 1999 - October 2002)
The purpose of this study if to understand the responses of tree resistance mechanisms and related insect populations to alternative forest health restoration thinning treatments. Tree thinning has been proposed to help restore vast areas of the Southwest that currently support dense ponderosa pine stands. Thinning is needed to meet many social goals, including reducing wildfire hazard and creating more open stand conditions. Whereas there is general agreement that current ponderosa pine forests are too crowded, there is disagreement about the types of thinning that might be effective in meeting social goals, and about the short-term effects of thinning on resistance to damaging forest insects in previously suppressed, small-diameter trees.
Specific tasks include: 1. Assess insect population characteristics, tree resistance to insects, tree growth, and tree physiological characteristics following experimental thinning and burning treatments implemented by the Forest Service. 2. Develop pheromone induced bark beetle attacks in trees as a bioassay procedure to assess stand treatment effects on tree resistance to bark beetles.

VEGETATION

UNDERSTORY

Casey1, Cheryl, Margaret M. Moore1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5018 cac@spruce.for.nau.edu
Effects of Restoration Treatments on Ponderosa Pine Understory. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Three restoration treatments, thinning from below (partial restoration), thinning and periodic prescribed burning (full restoration), and no treatment (control), were applied to 55 stratified plots on a 4.3 ha study site in a ponderosa pine-bunchgrass community in northern Arizona. Herbaceous understory response was monitored between 1992 (pretreatment) and 1999, using aboveground biomass, cover, and density. Preliminary results show that both partial and full restoration treatments have significantly increased overall herbaceous biomass for all years compared to control, with an average posttreatment increase of 450% for partial and 369% for full treatment. Within plant functional groups, from 1992 to 1999, pretreatment grass/forb biomass ratios of 2:1 had changed to 1.2:1 for full, and 3:1 for partial restoration. Average legume production as a percent of total herbaceous vegetation increased 16% over control for full and 8% for partial restoration. Relative biomass of functional groups showed the greatest fluctuation in the full treatment over time. In 1999 species richness had increased from pretreatment levels by 24, 38, and 41% for control, partial, and full treatments respectively. These results suggest that herbaceous production and diversity will increase and plant community characteristics will diverge depending upon restoration treatments.

Chancellor1, Walker, Judith D. Springer1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 wwc@dana.ucc.nau.edu
Can Wooly Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) Be Controlled? (Poster Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Wooly mullein is an exotic understory species that is often established in areas of soil disturbance. It is a biennial plant that were tested to investigate methods to control populations of wooly mullein. These treatments were designed to compare the effects of herbicidal and physical removal treatments. The following treatments were implemented: 1) removing entire plant and root systems, 2) trimming basal rosettes at ground level, 3) spot spraying with RD2 (herbicide), 4) spraying entire plots with RD2, 5) removing seed heads after bolting, and 6) control (no physical or herbicidal removal). After either herbicidal treatment, less than 4 percent of plants flowered. After either physical removal treatment, less than 2 percent of the mullein plants flowered. The number of adult plants was also reduced by 74 percent. Across treatments, there was no reduction in the overall population of mullein plants in the plots. By reducing the number of flowering plants as well as the number of adult plants, seed production may be reduced, thereby slowly depleting the number of seeds in the seed bank. In light of this experiment, large-scale control of mullein is difficult to accomplish. In areas where mullein is highly prevalent, land managers may need to consider that mullein is an early-successional species. Reseeding with native plant species may provide an alternative to control methods.

Covington1, Dr. W. Wallace, Dr. Pete Z. Fule 1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 - 5018
Understory Response to Different Restoration Prescription Treatments (August 1999 - December 2002)
The purpose of this study is to investigate the response of the herbaceous understory to different prescribed fire intensities and forest restoration thinning treatments. This research is contributes to the goals of the Grand Canyon Forests Partnership to reduce the risk of catastrophic fires and to restore the natural structure and function of ecosystem properties in southwestern ponderosa pine forests. The existing reduction in understory plant production and diversity in ponderosa pine forests has contributed to the alteration of the natural fire regime and the loss of habitat diversity for numerous wildlife, bird, and insect species. The information developed from this study will be used to design management recommendations to increase the herbaceous and woody understory production and diversity, which is a important component in the overall goal to restoring southwestern ponderosa pine forests.
Specific tasks include: (1) Plant Understory Measurements: Relocate and monitor all 240 herbaceous 50-m transects established as part of monitoring for the Flagstaff Interface 10K restoration treatment. Measure plant foliar and basal cover (by species), rock, litter, wood, or bare mineral soil at 30- cm intervals along these transects. Overlay five 50 x 20-m Modified-Whittaker plots within each of the 12 treatment units to quantify percent cover of each species to the nearest percent, generate species-area curves, and determine total aboveground biomass using the comparative yield technique. (2) Soil Seed Bank Measurements: Collect soil seed bank measurements before and after the prescribed burn in the three treatment units that received a 1.5 - 3 restoration thinning treatment and the 3 control units. Seed bank samples will be taken adjacent to 10 randomly selected transects within each of the six treatment units. The viable seed content of each soil core will be determined using a rapid greenhouse incubation procedure. (3) Mycorrhizae Measurements: Soil samples will be taken along the same transects used to measure the soil seed bank to estimate mycorrhizal propagule densities. Host seedlings will be planted in the soil and grown for 4 - 8 weeks in a greenhouse to allow for mycorrhizal root colonization. Plants will be harvested and roots examined for colonization using a dissecting microscope. (4) Fuel Consumption Measurements: Fuels will be sampled before and after the prescribed burn to quantify the amount of fuels consumed by the prescribed fire. Fuels will be measured along all twenty 50 - m herbaceous transects within each treatment unit. Fuel tallies will be recorded for intercepts along the transect in diameter classes 0 - 0.6 cm, 0.6 - 2.5 cm, 2.5 - 7.6 cm, and sound or rotten fuels larger than 7.6 cm by their specific diameter. Depth of litter and duff will be recorded every 5 meters. Woody fuel biomass will be calculated for individual size classes. (5) Fire Behavior Measurements: Measurements during the burn will be taken along the same 50 - m transects used to measure fuel consumption. Maximum surface temperature, total heat release, and heat penetration at different soil depths will be measured using temperature sensitive paints. Other measurements during the burn will include flame length, rate of spread, and fire weather conditions (temperature, relative humidity, precipitation, soil moisture, day and time of burn). Fire intensity will be estimated by measuring the fire flame length.

Crawford, J.A.; C-H. A. Wahren; S. Kyle; W.H. Moir. 2001.
Exotic plant species responses to fires in northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests.
Journal of Vegetation Sci. 12: in press
The three wildfires of 1996 in northern Arizona increased the richness and cover of non-native (exotic) plants in ponderosa pine forests. The amount of increase clearly depended upon fire severity. Moderate severity (M) wildfires mimic controlled restoration and fuel reduction burns whereby larger trees are not killed despite varying degrees of crown scorch. M fires caused non-native plants to significantly increase in both richness and cover in 1998, compared to nearby unburned stands. High severity (H) wildfires were stand-replacing fires that killed all or nearly all trees. In these stands the number of non-native plant species was about the same but their cover doubled compared to the M stands. Two non-native species new to the Arizona flora were found following wildfire. The occurrence of non-native plants two years after wildfires was considerably greater than reported from other studies in western North America.
This study complements the Griffis study. Wildfires, or hot prescription burns that simulate moderate severity wildfire burns, also create opportunities for non-native plants to come into an area and spread. The causes of non-native plants after wildfires are not understood, other than fires creating the disturbance necessary for opportunistic plants to exploit. Among the major unknown issues are the pre-burn patchiness of non-native seeds in the soil seed bank and how and when those seeds arrived there; the pre-burn patterns of trees and understory vegetation that might affect post-fire non-native plant responses; the roles of animals in bringing non-native plant propagules into stands and determining the persistence of those plants aboveground and in the soil seed bank; effects of competition between native and non-native plants; and influences of invasive non-native plants on persistence of native plants of special interest. The study raises a concern that once established after wildfires non-native plants may be a legacy in the composition of pine forests into the foreseeable future.
We now have four consecutive years (1997 to 2000) of vegetation monitoring in ponderosa pine forests burned in the 1996 Hochderffer wildfire and two years (1998 and 2000) of data from the 1996 Pot and Bridger-Knoll fires. Preliminary analyses indicate no abatement in dominance by non-native flora. We acknowledge that this is only a miniscule interval in the recovery of forests over the scale of centuries.

Griffis, K.L.; J.A. Crawford; M.R. Wagner; W.H. Moir. 2001.
Understory response to management treatments in northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests. Forest Ecology and Management 141: in press.
Non-native (exotic) plants significantly increased in richness (i.e. number of species present) when blackjack pine stands (stands under about 125 years at breast height age) were thinned and burned under prescriptions and when stand replacement wildfires occurred (in 1996). Non-native plants greatly increased in abundance when stand replacing wildfires occurred in 1996. Non-native plant abundance (as cover or density) was not significantly different among untreated, thinned, and thinned and burned treatments 6 to 12 years after thinning and 3 to 8 years after broadcast burning. This study shows that thinning and fire management in blackjack stands will be accompanied by establishing non-native plants. More severe combinations of thinning and slash disposal by fire will be accompanied by increased dominance (as abundance, density, or cover) by non-native plants. Several non-native species relatively new to the Arizona flora were found in the treated stands. Thus, there may be important tradeoffs between the goal of reducing stand-replacing fires through fuel reduction and the goal to minimize introduction and spread of non-native plants. This study did not show how long non-native plants persist in the understory or whether they reduced diversity or dominance of native plants.
The above conclusions were suggested, but are not yet fully analyzed, by understory vegetation measurements in stands of the Urban/Wildland Interface study at Fort Valley Experimental Forest near Flagstaff, where various fuel reduction treatments are being implemented and monitored.

Machina1, Lisa M., Margaret M. Moore1, Laura E. DeWald1, 1) Ecological Restoration Institute, Northern Arizona University, College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 Lisa.Machina@nau.edu
Response of silvery lupine and pine dropseed to ponderosa pine restoration treatments. (Poster Presentation - ERI: Putting the Pieces TogetherS/April 25-28,2001)
Phenology and reproduction are under heavy selection pressure for survival and, therefore, it is critical to understand their response to restoration treatments. Silvery lupine (Lupinus argenteus) and pine dropseed (Blepharoneuron tricholepis) are widespread understory species in southwestern Pinus ponderosa forests. Both species were studied in each of three overstory treatments [no treatment (control), thin only (partial), and thin and burn (full)] at Gus Pearson Natural Area near Flagstaff during the 1999 and 2000 growing seasons. Phenology, the number of reproductive stalks, and production (density and basal or aerial diameters) were measured.
More plants reached reproductive maturity in treated areas. Average plant density of silvery lupine was highest in the full restoration treatment and significantly lower in the control and partial restoration treatments (p<0.05). The average plant density of pine dropseed was highest in treated areas, and significantly lower in the control (p<0.05). In addition, the number of reproductive stalks, height, and diameter were highest in the treated areas for both species. These results indicate that different overstory restoration treatments can differently affect reproductive success of these two understory species. Managers need to consider this type of information if a goal of restoration is to maximize development of certain native understory plants.

Maschinski1, Joyce, Joanne Baggs1, 1) The Arboretum of Flagstaff, 4001 S. Woody Mountain Rd., Flagstaff, AZ 86001 Joyce.Maschinski@NAU.EDU
Potential Impacts of Controlled thinning and Burning on Exotic, Native, and Rare Understory Species. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Prescribed thinning and burning has been embraced by many southwest land managers as a widespread solution to reduce fire risk and restore forest health. Yet little is known about how restoration activities will impact understory species. We review evidence of the direct and indirect impacts of thinning and burning on the understory species Clematis habitat indicated that species richness varied from 0-20 species and understory cover was <15%. Previous studies indicated that the rare species was most fecund when growing under canopies of 50% full sun and suggested that the species would benefit from restoration activities. In 18 caged plots with the rare species, we will be able to detect the relationship between litter depth and plant survival, growth, and reproduction in the presence and absence of thinning and burning. In both experiments we will be able to detect the indirect effects of competition of natives and exotics on the rare species.

Moore1, Dr. Margaret, Dr. Laura E. DeWald1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Herbaceous Understory Phenology and Germination Response to Forest Restoration Treatments. (August 1999 - December 2002)
The purpose of this study is to support the goals of the Grand Canyon Forests Partnership in restoring natural ecosystem functions, reducing the risk of catastrophic fire, and researching the implications of these efforts, specifically understory herbaceous plant response to treatments. Herbaceous plant production in northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests has decreased dramatically over the last 100 years due to overgrazing, fire suppression, and competition with the overstory for light, moisture and nutrients. Restoration practices of thinning and prescribed burning greatly reduce tree canopy cover and fuel loading, creating openings where understory vegetation can thrive. Whether the native herbaceous community will successfully reestablish in these openings is unclear. Little research exists on increasing understory density, improving diversity of native species, and reducing exotic species invasion in restored ponderosa pine ecosystems. There is a need for the study of restoration effects on the herbaceous community. This study will determine the phenological and germination responses of selected, but important, native and aggressive non-native understory species under different restoration treatments (specifically thin only, thin and burn, and no treatment). Phenological and germination responses will be measured for silvery lupine (Lupinus argenteus), pine dropseed (Blepharoneuron tricholepis), toadflax (Linaria dalmatica), and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) in field and greenhouse conditions, respectively.
Specific tasks include: 1. Locate study plants and plots, collect preliminary phenological field data and gather seeds of lupine, pine dropseed, toadflax, and cheatgrass for preliminary germination trials. 2. Conduct phonological measurements, survival, and plant growth (height, biomass) of the selected native and non-native species. 3. Collect seeds from the four target species. 4. Conduct germination trials at the Arizona Seed Testing Laboratory and at Northern Arizona University.

Moore1, Dr. Margaret, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Shrub Response to Forest Restoration and Fuels Management Treatments. (August 1999 - December 2002)
The purpose of this study is to support the goals of the Grand Canyon Forests Partnership in restoring natural ecosystem functions, reducing the risk of catastrophic fire, and researching the implications of these efforts; specifically understory shrub response to treatments. In order to restore natural ecosystem function and structure to northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests, detailed information regarding responses of key species to restoration treatments is needed. Shrubs such as Ceanothus fendleri Gray (buckbrush) and Rosa woodsii Lindl. (wild rose) are common components of northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests and play important ecosystem roles. Although research has shown increases in herbaceous production after overstory thinning and prescribed fire, few details exist regarding autecological responses of understory species, particularly shrubs, to these treatments. For many species, response varies by phenological stage and resource reserves (e.g., total nonstructural carbohydrates) in tissues at the time of disturbance. These in turn are influenced by the plant's environment. The objective of this research is to provide basic autecological information for common shrubs with a focus on plant response to overstory thinning, season of prescribed fire, and large ungulate herbivory. Field experiments will be employed to examine shrub growth and vigor following restoration treatments in the Fort Valley 10K management area of the Fort Valley Experimental Forest and Coconino National Forest, Arizona.
Specific tasks include: (1). Locate study plants and plots of Ceanothus fendleri; build cages and fire line around plots in treatments (overstory thin vs. control, prescribed burn vs. control, browsed vs. control). (2) Collect preliminary phenological Ceanothus fendleri data; collect rhizome segments for carbohydrate analysis. (3) Prescribed burning of selected Ceanothus fendleri shrub plots. (4) Begin first full field season of phenological/physiological measurements of Ceanothus fendleri; (5) Locate study plants and plots of Rosa woodsii build cages and fire line around Rosa woodsii plots, if appropriate (if there is an adequate sample size). (6) Install Rosa woodsii study plots and monitor belowground morphology, physiology, and sprouting characteristics. (7) Monitor Ceanothus fendleri response to overstory treatments and ungulate herbivory. (8) Conduct burns treatments of Ceanothus fendleri and monitor response. (9) Continue monitoring of physiology and sprouting characteristics of Ceanothus fendleri.

Moser1, Laura, Julie Crawford2, 1) USDA Forest Service, Coconino Supervisor's Office, San Francisco Peaks Weed Management Area, 2323 E. Greenlaw Lane, Flagstaff, AZ 86004 lmoser@fs.fed.us, 2) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Flagstaff, AZ
Exotic Species Threatening Restoration of Ponderosa Pine Ecosystems. (Poster Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
To preserve natural biodiversity, restoration treatments must consider the potential spread of invasive exotic plants. Infestations of several noxious weeks are expanding explosively in the ponderosa pine forests of northern Arizona. Many of these species are fire adapted and are out competing the native species after a burn. Not only do these invasive exotics respond favorably to burning and any ground disturbance, but once established many will spread into undisturbed forested lands. The San Francisco Peaks Weed Management Area, an interagency cooperation, was established in May 1999 to include 1.5 million acres dominated by ponderosa pine. Surveys during the past year have revealed much greater spread than suspected of invasive exotics along transportation corridors, throughout recreation areas, and in sites disjunct from previously known populations, adding to the urgency for action. The overall goals of the San Francisco Peaks Weed Management Area are to prevent, control, and eradicate invasive exotics, and restore and protect natural resources and biodiversity. I will present species action plans, adapted to local weather and forest conditions, specific to the invasive exotic plants threatening our local ponderosa pine ecosystems. These action plans could be incorporated into future restoration projects and experiments.

Steed1, James E., Laura E. DeWald2, 1) Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2500 S. Pine Knoll Drive, Flagstaff, AZ 86001, 2) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 jes37@dana.ucc.nau.edu (Oral Presentation - ERI: Putting the Pieces Together/April 25-28,2001)
Using sedges (Carex spp.) in the restoration of Southwestern riparian meadows.
To evaluate their potential use in riparian restoration, we assessed the survival and growth of transplanted plugs of three sedge species (Carex lanuginosa, C. nebrascensis, and C. rostrata) for two transplant seasons (summer, fall) and two plug sizes (294 cm3, 680 cm3) at montane meadow sites in Arizona. Survival did not differ among species, although shoot numbers were greater for C. lanuginosa (12.7 shoots/plug) as compared to C. nebrascensis (5.5) and C. rostrata (7.9). Survival was greater for the summer transplant season and both survival and growth were greater for the larger plug size (survival - 55.1% summer versus 24.1% fall, 46.1% large versus 33.0% small; shoots/plug - 8.1 large versus 6.4 small). We found significant associations between depth to groundwater and plug survival for each species, with highest survival rates for C. lanuginose (78.6%), C. nebrascensis (88.2%), and C. rostrata (64.3%) where the depth to groundwater was 48 to 60, 28 to 47, and 8 to 27 cm respectively. These data suggest restoration will be most successful if transplanting occurs during the summer and species are planted at appropriate depths to groundwater.

OVERSTORY

DeWald1, Dr. Laura E., 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 Laura.DeWald@nau.edu
The purpose of this study to determine the effects of restoration and fuels management treatments on genetic diversity by comparing potential changes before and after restoration treatments, and to prescribe actions to prevent or mitigate undesired genetic consequences in current and future restoration projects. This research supports the goals of the Grand Canyon Forests Partnership and the Forest Service in restoring natural ecosystem functions, reducing the risk of catastrophic fire, and understanding the implications of these efforts, specifically, quantifying existing genetic composition and structure among age classes in ponderosa pine stands. Genetic diversity contributes to ecosystem health by providing the raw materials for species to respond and evolve to changing abiotic and biotic environments. While many changes in genetic diversity occur naturally, human activities can accelerate or change its direction unintentionally in undesired ways. Current management practices to restore southwestern ponderosa pine ecosystems have a high potential to impact the genetic resources of these ecosystems through density reductions and the reintroduction of natural disturbance regimes. However, currently there is no genetic research being conducted in conjunction with ponderosa pine restoration, and very little is known about the natural genetic diversity levels of southwestern ponderosa pine populations. Thus it is very difficult, if not impossible, to protect the genetic integrity of these stands during ecosystem restoration. In this study, genetic composition, structure and function will be quantified among age classes and restoration treatments, and this information will be used to develop strategies to avoid undesirable genetic changes. Genetic material will be extracted from seed and meristematic tissue from ponderosa pine populations representing different age classes in different treatments.
Specific tasks include: 1. Locate study populations and identify old-growth parent trees for meristem collections. 2. Collect dormant buds for meristem extraction. 3. Extract meristematic tissue and conduct allozyme analyses to quantify genetic composition and structure through August 2000; 1. Complete ongoing allozyme laboratory analyses of dormant ponderosa pine bud tissue collected during the fall and winter of 2000, revisit sites and collect additional tissue if needed. 2. Conduct statistical analyses of the results of the laboratory work.

Edminster, Carl, Project Leader. Rocky Mountain Research Station, Southwest Forest Science Complex, 2500 South Pine Knoll Drive, Flagstaff, AZ 86001
Taylor Woods - levels of growing stock study. (September 1962 - present).
This study was developed in the early 1960's to determine what growing stock levels would optimize the growth rate of stagnate pole size trees. The study was established in a stand of common age (43 year old) poles that were established from the 1919 seedling year. The six growing stock levels (GSL) tested were 30, 60, 80, 100, 120, and 150 and were each replicated three times. These levels are defined as the square-foot basal areas per acre that the residual stands have or will have once the average stand diameter is 10 inches or more. The diameter and height of each remaining tree is measured every five years and are marked and thinned to the appropriate GSL every ten years. The study site has been thinned again in 1972 and 1982. This study is one of several sites throughout the western United States set up to study this question but this may be the only site that has kept to the original schedule of measurements and treatment applications beyond the originally proposed 20 years. Results have substantiated that southwestern ponderosa pine does respond to thinning and that maximum growth will occur at the lower growing stock levels tested.

Fule 1, Dr. Pete Z., 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5018
Periodic Remeasurement of the Gus Pearson Natural Area (March 2001 - November 2001)
The purpose of this study is to remeasure permanently tagged trees at the Gus Pearson Natural Area (GPNA), Fort Valley Experimental Forest, Arizona. The GPNA trees were first tagged and measured in 1920. They have been measured at 5 or 10-year intervals since, through 1990. These trees represent the longest continuous inventory data set in southwestern ponderosa pine forests and provide a valuable baseline of forest stand dynamics without active management other than fire suppression. This remeasurement will capture growth and mortality through the 2000 growing season. Data will show trends in tree growth, death rates, and other patterns of tree and stand dynamics.
Specific tasks include: 1. Remeasure all possible tagged GPNA trees before the beginning of the growing season, 2001. 2. Record tree data on standardized forms. 3. Enter tree data in GPNA database.

Heinlein1, Thomas A., Margaret M. Moore1, W. Wallace Covington1, Peter Z. Fule 1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 tah@spruce.for.nau.edu
There Goes the Neighborhood? Perspectives on Demographic Shifts and the Loss of Old Growth at the Ponderosa Pine/Mixed Conifer Ecotone: San Francisco Peaks, Arizona. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Contemporary shifts in forest structure at the ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa)/mixed conifer ecotone have created fuel matrices that sustain destructive, high intensity fires. To gain a perspective on the structure and disturbance dynamics of this forest type, we conducted an investigation in a 180 ha section of mixed conifer forest on the San Francisco Peaks. Our data show that at the time of Euro-American settlement in the late 1800's, the site was dominated by ponderosa pine trees. Prior to 1876, low intensity wildfires occurred every 5 to 10 years. However, since settlement there have been no widespread fires. This lack of fire, combined with climatic fluctuations and the harvest of old growth has led to the development of dense forest structures that are significantly different than presettlement conditions in terms of tree size, age distribution, and species composition. We discuss the opportunities and challenges associated with restoring this forest type to more sustainable conditions.

Huffman1, David W., Margaret M. Moore1, W. Wallace Covington1, Joseph E. Crouse1, Peter Z. Fule 1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 David.Huffman@nau.edu
Ponderosa Pine Forest Reconstruction: Comparisons with Historical Data. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Dendroecological forest reconstruction techniques are used to estimate presettlement structure of northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests. To test the accuracy of these methods, we remeasured 10 of the oldest forest plots in the region and compared reconstruction outputs to historical data collected in 1909 - 1914. Results of this analysis revealed several distinct sources of error: (1) After ~90 years, 94% of the recorded trees were relocated and remeasured, but approximately 3 trees/ha were missed in the field due to obliteration by fire of decay; (2) sizes of trees living in 1909 were overestimated by an average of 11%; (3) snag and log decomposition models tended to underestimate time since tree death; and (4) cutting dates of harvested trees were uncertain. The aggregate effect of these errors was to overestimate the number of trees occurring in 1909 - 1914. Sensitivity analysis applied to decomposition functions altered reconstructed sizes of snags and logs by ±5% and varied stand density estimates by 7%. Our results suggest that these reconstruction techniques are robust, but the methodology presented here tended to overestimate tree size and forest density.

Kolanoski1, K.M., L.E. DeWald1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 kmk7@dana.ucc.nau.edu
Differences in Genetic Diversity of Pre- and Post- Euro-American Settlement Ponderosa Pine in Northern Arizona. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Putting the Pieces TogetherS/April 25-28,2001)
Biodiversity conservation of forest ecosystems requires management to be performed on a genetic as well as a species, community, and landscape level. This study used starch gel electrophoresis to compare genetic variation of pre-Euro-American (50-74 years old) and post- (123-424 years old) settlement trees growing in Gus Pearson Natural Area, Flagstaff. The results suggest that there is greater total diversity among trees in the post- than in the pre-settlement trees (78% versus 56% polymorphic loci), but the post-settlement trees have less variation within individuals (smaller observed heterzygosity). More individual tree genetic variation is found within the pre-settlement age group. Exact tests for population differentiation showed an overall significant difference in genetic composition among age classes. Selective pressures such as resource competition and fire suppression could have caused the genetic differences observed among the age groups. If so, thinning guidelines for restoration treatments should be altered to include these genetic considerations.

Kolb1, T.E., M.R. Wagner1, P.Z. Fule2, W.W. Covington2, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5018 Tom.Kolb@nau.edu, 2) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5018
Five-Year Changes in Mortality and Crown Condition of Old-Growth Ponderosa Pines in Different Ecological Restoration Treatments at the G. A. Pearson Natural Area. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Ecological restoration treatments using thinning and prescribed fire have been proposed to reverse the decline of old-growth ponderosa pines in the Southwest. However, long-term data on the effectiveness of such treatments is lacking. In 1993-4, two ecological restoration treatments and a control were implemented on small plots at the G.A. Pearson Natural Area located near Flagstaff, AZ: partial restoration (thinning to create tree density and structure similar to pre-Euro-American settlement forests), complete restoration (thinning + prescribed fire), control (current dense condition with no treatment). In 1994, we evaluated crown condition and live crown ratio on 150 old-growth trees at the study site. We repeated these evaluations in 2000, approximately five years after the treatments were started. This paper reports on changes in mortality and crown condition for these trees in the three treatments.

Mathiasen1, Dr. Robert L., 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 Robert.Mathiasen@nau.edu
Effects of Fuels Reduction Treatments on Southwestern Dwarf Mistletoe in Ponderosa Pine in the Wildland-Urban Interface. (May 1999 - September, 2001)
The purpose of this study is to develop knowledge about the effects of fuel reduction treatments on dwarf mistletoe populations in ponderosa pine stands of the Southwest and the effects of residual dwarf mistletoe populations on fuel loading following these treatments. The study will contribute to effective recommendations for fuel reduction treatments within dwarf mistletoe-infested ponderosa pine forests. Specific objectives include: (1) determine the fuel load characteristics of dwarf mistletoe-infected ponderosa pine in pine forests that have been treated to reduce fuel loads in the urban/wildland interface; (2) determine dwarf mistletoe population dynamics within ponderosa pine in pine forests that have been treated to reduce fuel loads in the urban/wildland interface; (3) determine effects of fuel reduction treatments on survivability of dwarf mistletoe-infected pines; (4) determine the effects of different fuel reduction treatments on stand development following treatment in dwarf mistletoe-infested ponderosa pine stands in the urban/wildland interface; and (5) to monitor dwarf mistletoe spread and intensification, and intensively monitor prescribed fire patterns and effects on infested ponderosa pines. It will also include collection of data on the effects of the fuel reduction treatments on residual trees and dwarf mistletoe populations within the monitoring plots.

Mathiasen1, Dr. Robert L., 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Effects of Wildfire and Fire-Management Options on Forest Pathogens in Ponderosa Pine and Pinyon-Juniper Forests in the Southwest.
The purpose of this study is to determine how forest pathogens respond to wildfires and various fire-management options in southwestern ponderosa pine and pinyon-juniper forests, and to examine interactions of pathogens with invasive and exotic weeds and forest insects.
Specific tasks include: A. Conduct surveys of the forest pathogens on 1) existing Stand Treatment Impacts on Forest Health (STIFH) study sites in the ponderosa pine forests of northern Arizona; 2) two southwestern ponderosa pine forest Fire and Fire Surrogate Treatments (FFS) study sites (Site 7: Southwestern Plateau, Coconino and Kaibab National Forests, northern Arizona; and Site 8: Jemez Mountains, Santa Fe National Forest, northern New Mexico); and 3) long-term Rocky Mountain Research Station pinyon-juniper study sites in Arizona. These surveys will identify what forest pathogens are currently active on these sites, and where they are located. B. Establish permanent monitoring plots where active pathogens are found in the above surveys. C. Identify which, if any, forest pathogens are useful as key indicators, i.e., species that affect ecosystem structure and upon which the diversity of a large part of the forest community depends. D. Continue to monitor the effects of any new prescribed fire treatments on the study sites on forest pathogens.

Skov1, Kjerstin R., Kimberly F. Wallin1, Thomas E. Kolb1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Effects of restoration thinning treatments on water relations and photosynthesis of four size-classes of Pinus ponderosa. (Poster Presentation - ERI: Putting the Pieces TogetherS/April 25-28,2001)
We investigated effects of restoration thinning in ponderosa pine forests on leaf water potential and net photosynthetic rate. Treatments were initiated in December 1998 and included an unthinned control, a light thinning, and a heavy thinning. In thinned plots, leave-tree selection was based on presettlement tree evidence. Unthinned controls were densely stocked with pre- and post-settlement trees. Measurements were made on four tree size classes, and during a dry period in June and a wet period in August. June predawn water potential was significantly higher in thinned than control treatments. Midday water potential was significantly higher in heavily thinned than lightly thinned or control treatments, with no differences at midmorning. August predawn and midmorning water potentials were significantly lower in lightly thinned than in heavily thinned or control treatments, and midday water potential was significantly higher in the control treatment. Plots of net photosynthesis rate versus vapor pressure deficit suggested that heavy thinning increased photosynthesis compared with the lightly thinned and unthinned control. Tree size did not affect water potential or photosynthetic rate in most cases. These results suggest that previously suppressed ponderosa pines respond quickly to heavy thinning by increasing water uptake and photosynthesis.

SOIL

Bailey1, Dr. John D., 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Modeling Natural Regeneration of Ponderosa Pine Relationships to Soil Type in the Southwest (December 1998 - December 1999)
The purpose of this study is to initiate a study to develop predictive relationships to model natural regeneration and early growth of ponderosa pine in the Southwest with emphasis on understanding regeneration response to various Terrestrial Ecosystem Survey soil types. These relationships will be structured for incorporation into the Forest Vegetation Simulator. Forest land management planning in the Southwest requires improved models for predicting dynamics of forest stands after treatment. A major weakness of existing models of stand dynamics is for early phases of stand development. This study is aimed at correcting that weakness for ponderosa pine which is the major forest type under management in the Southwest. These improved predictive models contribute to management planning for both forest health restoration and wildland-urban interface fuels management programs in the Southwest. The study design will be multivariate to allow for opportunity to analyze associations within and among other factors in addition to soil types affecting regeneration. The sampling will encompass some stands of developing old growth to extend the analysis to older age structures which are the focus of many management regimes. Also, the study will provide for the examination of the relationship between canopy cover and stand basal area as an expression of relative stand density, as well as the spatial relationships of seedlings to seed trees and canopy.
Specific tasks include: A multivariate survey of natural regeneration of ponderosa pine, based on Terrestrial Ecosystem Survey soil types, will be conducted on selected sites within the Coconino, Apache-Sitgreaves, and Kaibab National Forests. In addition, all trees and significant ground features surveyed will be located on plot maps. Approximately 150 0.1-hectare plots will be surveyed. Analysis will employ multiple regression analysis, using stepwise regression techniques and cross correlation analysis. Add more intensive understory vegetation sampling and characterization to research sites installed under the original agreement in northern Arizona.

Hart1, Stephen C., Dr. Catherine Gehirng2, Dr. Bruce Hungate2, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, 2) NAU College of Arts and Sciences, Department of Biology, PO Box 5640, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Biological, Chemical, and Physical Responses of the Soil Ecosystem to Fuel Management and Forest Health Restoration. (August 1999 - January, 2003)
The purpose of this study is to conduct an integrated, multidisciplinary assessment of the impacts of fuel management and forest health restoration activities on the soil ecosystem in ponderosa pine forests around Flagstaff, Arizona. The primary goal of the research is to determine the consequences of different fuel management and restoration activities on key aspects of forest floor and mineral soil structure and function. The rationale for this research is that the long-term success or failure of the restoration and silvicultural treatments rests to a great degree on the sustainability of the soil resource.
The following measurements will be performed within each of the three replicate blocks of the existing three restoration treatments and a control.
(1) Biological component: Soil microflora - Changes in physical and chemical attributes of the soil expected to be indicative of changes in the quality of habitat for the soil microflora (e.g., soil moisture, temperature, aeration, organic matter quality and quantity, etc.) will be measured. Use of phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) profiles in the soil to assess both the size of the microbial biomass and microbial community structure (relative abundances of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes) is proposed. Fungal biomass also will be assessed through the determination of ergosterol concentration in the soil.
Mycorrhizae and fine-root biomass - Initially, ectomycorrhizal colonization and community compositions will be monitored via morphotypes and sporocarp abundance. Quantification of fine root biomass will be made as part of the mycorrhizal monitoring. Information on fine-root biomass will allow assessment of how vegetation structure is altered belowground by the various treatments.
Belowground carbon allocation -estimated by measuring aboveground litterfall inputs (using littertraps), soil respiration (using soil covers), and changes in total soil C pools over time. These estimates of belowground C allocation will hopefully be combined with estimates of aboveground NPP, made by other researchers using dimension analysis, to provide values of total NPP.
(2) Chemical component: Forest floor and mineral soil nutrient capital - Forest floor mass and depth measured by other researchers will be complemented by analyzing the nutrient capital of the forest floor. Soil nutrient availability - Nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient in these forest ecosystems, so efforts will focus on the availability of this nutrient and will measure net N mineralization and nitrification rates of the forest floor and mineral soil in situ using the covered-core approach. These rates will serve as indices for assessing the impacts of the treatments on soil N availability.
(3) Physical component: Mineral soil physical and hydrologic properties - Measurements will include ground cover surveys (mineral soil exposure to the atmosphere) and soil penetrometer readings (a measure of soil strength), make bulk density measurements (an index of soil compaction and aeration), and test for hydrophobicity as part of a broad assessment of treatment effects on soil physical properties related to ecosystem integrity.
This initial set of comprehensive measurements will be used to develop a smaller set of soil variables that co-vary with measures of ecosystem sustainability/integrity (such as net primary productivity (NPP) or net ecosystem production) that can be used for monitoring purposes, and can be cost-effectively extended to other proposed WUI silvicultural treatments.

Hart1, Dr. Stephen D., 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Soil Nutrient Availability and Biodiversity Responses to Fire and Fire Surrogates Treatments. (September 2000 - September 2002)
The purpose of this study is to understand soil nutrient availability and biodiversity responses at the Coconino and Kaibab National Forests study sites that are part of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) Treatments study partially funded by the Joint Fire Science Program. Nutrient availability is one of the major controls on forest vegetation productivity. Understanding how the various fuel and vegetation treatments affect both standing pools of key nutrients and the rates at which they are made available through the activities of the soil biota are critical to the prediction of the long-term effects of the treatments. Soil microbes (such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes) and soil fauna (such as microarthropods, nematodes) play key roles in the organic matter and nutrient dynamics of the forest floor and soil and help regulate primary production and fuel accumulation. This study will implement the FFS protocols for nitrogen mineralization, nitrification, and biodiversity assessments.
Specific tasks include: (1) Conduct inventories and analyses of pretreatment nutrient availability (nitrogen mineralization and nitrification) using aerobic in situ incubations following FFS protocols. (2) Conduct pretreatment biodiversity assessments using mutually agreed to local modifications of the alternative FFS protocols.

Korb1, Julie E., Nancy C. Johnson2, W. Wallace Covington1, 1) Ecological Restoration Institute, Northern Arizona University, College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 jek@spruce.for.nau.edu, 2) Center for Environmental Sciences and Education and Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona
Slash Pile Burning Significantly Reduces Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Propagule Densities and the Soil Seed Bank. (Poster Presentation - ERI: Putting the Pieces TogetherS/April 25-28,2001)
Ponderosa pine forest restoration consists of thinning trees and reintroducing prescribed fire to reduce unnaturally high tree densities and fuel loads in order to restore ecosystem structure and function. A large quantity of slash is created from thinning dense forest stands. Slash piles were created following tree thinning in two 20-ha ponderosa pine restoration treatments in the Flagstaff Urban/Wildland Interface, Arizona. Slash piling is useful because it allows land managers to burn large quantities of slash in a more controlled environment in comparison to broadcast burning slash. However, burning slash piles is known to sterilize soil and permit the establishment of exotic species. This study investigated the effects of slash pile burning on arbuscular mycorrhizal propagule densities, the soil seed bank and seedling emergence. We selected thirty burned slash pile areas and sampled across a gradient of the burned piles for arbuscular mycorrhizal propagule densities, soil chemical properties, and the soil seed bank. In addition, we established five 1-m2 plots in each burned pile to quantify seedling emergence in soil and seed treatment amendments. The five treatments consisted of a control (no treatment), soil amendment, sterilized soil amendment, seed amendment, and a seed/soil amendment. The relative amount of infective arbuscular propagules and number of viable seeds in the soil seed bank significantly decreased from outside to inside the burned slash pile. In addition, there were a significantly higher average number of seedlings in the seed/soil amendments, 46 seedlings, in comparison to seedling alone, 8 seedlings, with no or little establishment in the other treatments. These preliminary results indicate that slash pile burning has a negative effect on arbuscular mycorrhizal propagule densities and viable seeds in the soil seed bank. In addition, this study suggests that a seed/soil amendment is necessary for native plant establishment on burned slash piles.

Korb1, Julie E., Nancy C. Johnson2, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 jek@spruce.for.nau.edu, 2) NAU Department of Biological Sciences
The Effect of Restoration Thinning on Mycorrhizal Fungal Propagules in Northern Arizona Ponderosa Pine Forest. (Poster Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
The inoculum potential for arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi were investigated in thinned and uncut control stands in a Northern Arizona ponderosa pine forest. A corn bioassay was used to determine the relative amount of infective propagules of AM fungi and a ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) bioassay was used to determine the relative amount of infective propagules of EM fungi. Three stands of each treatment were sampled by collecting soil cores along 10 randomly chosen transects within each stand. The relative amount of infective propagules of EM fungi in samples collected from thinned stands in comparison to the controls; however this difference was not significant. These preliminary results indicate that population densities of AM fungi can rapidly increase following restoration thinning in Northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests. This may have important implications for restoring the herbaceous understory of these forests because most understory plants depend upon AM associations for normal growth.

Sackett1, Stephen (retired), Sally Haase1, Dan Neary2, and Steve Overby2, 1) Pacific Research Station, Forest Fire Laboratory, 4955 Canyon Crest Drive, Riverside, CA 92507, 2) Rocky Mountain Research Station, Southwest Forest Science Complex, 2500 South Pine Knoll Drive, Flagstaff, AZ 86001
Effects of stand density treatments and prescribed fire on soil properties, nutrient cycling, and forest floor components. (June 1998 - present)
This study utilizes the Taylor Woods growing stock study site to evaluate the combination of thinning and prescribed fire. The treatment plots were split in half and prescribed fire was applied in the fall of 1998 to the randomly selected half. Fuels were measured extensively prior to and after the fire and included forest floor material as well as woody material. Variables being evaluated include forest floor total mass, carbon and nitrogen as well as plant lignin of the litter layers. Soil variables include organic C, humic and fulvic acid fractions, polysaccharides, carboxylic acids, and total kjeldahl nitrogen. Extractable ammonium and nitrate found in the soil are also measured before and after the prescribed burn. A complete vegetation survey was also done on the study area to determine if understory grass and forb species change with the application of prescribed fire in stands that have been mechanically thinned to the various growing stock levels and maintain at these levels for nearly four decades.

CLIMATE

Meyer1, Cecilia L., Thomas D. Sisk2, W.W. Covington1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 clm2@dana.ucc.nau.edu, 2) NAU Center for Environmental Science and Education
Microclimatic Changes Associated with Ponderosa Pine Forest Restoration in Northern Arizona. (Poster Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Restoration of ponderosa pine ecosystems results in altered stand structure, potentially altering habitat suitability for invertebrates and other forest organisms. This research focused on measuring microclimates associated with the restoration treatments in northern Arizona. Light intensity, air temperature, and vapor pressure deficit were monitored over two field seasons with two types of instruments, Hobo dataloggers (Spectrum technologies, Plainsfield, Illinois, U.S.A.) and a Campbell micrologger (Campbell Scientific Inc., Logan, Utah, U.S.A.). We measured differences in microclimate between the treated forest and un-restored control forest, as well as examined the microclimatic edge gradients were present only in the morning and evening for air temperature and vapor pressure deficit. We were unable to examine light intensity gradients at these times. Our results imply that the microclimatic environment associated with ponderosa pine forest restoration, although not dramatically altered, has the potential to impact organisms, both plants and animals.

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Social Component

FIRE/SMOKE/FUEL MANAGEMENT

Bailey1, Dr. John Duff, Dr. Jon Souder1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Environmental History as a Foundation for Adaptive Management: Demonstration and Application to Southwestern Forests. (August 1999 - June 2002)
The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the application of environmental history as a foundation for adaptive management of southwestern forests. Environmental histories are becoming increasingly common as a way to document the effects of humans and past management actions on wildlands. While these histories provide vast amounts of information on past human effects on the environment, they have not yet played a significant role in contemporary land management. This is because they generally take a largely chronological and static approach. However, environmental history has the potential to provide a foundation for adaptive management of natural ecological systems. This potential becomes apparent when all management actions, past and present with their resulting causes and effects are viewed as experiments. Environmental histories can provide the data from these management experiments. The principal advantage of this perspective is that data on ecosystem responses to management actions is available today, rather than waiting the requisite period until the effects of today's treatments can be observed.
Specific tasks include: (a) Determining user information needs; (b) Identifying the sources of historical data that can be used to assist in answering manager and stakeholder questions; (c) Preserving meta-data associated with the various sources of information; (d) Developing archival strategies to ensure that information collected on specific areas is preserved; (e) Determining efficient strategies to provide the results of the collected information to managers and stakeholders; and (f) to the extent possible with existing resources develop the archive of rangeland research records. This work will follow existing work plans.

Barnes1, Ethan, P.J. Daugherty1, Pete Fule 1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 ethan_b@hotmail.com
Smoke Emissions from Prescribed Burning in Flagstaff's Wildland Urban Interface. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Putting the Pieces TogetherS/April 25-28,2001)
A variety of management options, many involving prescribed fire, have been designed to restore forest ecosystems and lower the risk of catastrophic wildfire in the Wildland Urban Interfaces (WUI) of the Southwestern U.S. However, smoke from fires can degrade air quality, affect respiratory health, and decrease visibility. This research modeled the smoke produced from 12 management combinations of fuel treatment and burning intervals for three stand types in Flagstaff's WUI. Much higher smoke emissions were produced during initial burns, but decreased rapidly with continued burning. Stand history and fuel treatment were both major determinants of smoke emissions. The total amount of smoke was greatest with a more frequent fire regime (5-year) and least with a longer interval (20-year). The more frequent fire regime resulted in more constant (chronic) smoke emissions, increasing exposure, but with a lower quantity at any one time. A less frequent fire regime (20-year) resulted in episodic exposure to larger quantities of smoke (acute).

Daugherty1, Dr. P.J., 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Fire and Fuel Management Options for Flagstaff, Arizona, Wildland-Urban Interface: Smoke levels from Prescribed Fire and Intergenerational Equity. (September 1998 - December 2001)
The purpose of this study is to address socio-economic impacts of smoke produced by fuel reduction and restoration projects in the Flagstaff wildland-urban interface. The use of prescribed fire in the wildland-urban interface will produce smoke. The presence of smoke in the air will directly affect local residents, and may affect regional residents depending on the weather pattern at the time of treatment.
The first research focus of this study is what is the amount, type, extent, and timing of smoke that might be produced from prescribed fire treatments under various management options. The second research focus is on the general costs and benefits which will be passed on to future residents under each management option, and how much smoke in the air must be accepted by current residents to pass on these costs and benefits. Hypotheses to be examined include: 1) over time, more smoke from prescribed fire will be produced under ecological restoration than under a management option of reducing the risk of crown fire; 2) the amount of smoke generated by full restoration treatments will exceed the current air quality standards; and3) the relative benefits passed to future residents, and the amount of smoke that must be accepted by current residents, will be greatest under ecological restoration and lowest under minimal management.
The research will involve: 1) defining the management goals and desired future conditions for each management option; 2) defining each management option, including the type and frequency of treatments required to meet the management goals; 3) determining the annual extent, timing and intensity of prescribed fire treatments, given the description of each management option and forest structure in which it is conducted; 4) determining the likely amount, type and timing of smoke that will be produced from these prescribed fire treatments; and identifying and describing the potential costs and benefits that will be passed on to future residents under each management option. (5) Complete an additional fifth task which is to develop geographic information system (GIS) based modeling of smoke generated under different spatial and temporal combinations of fuel management treatments.

Delost1, J.M, Martha E. Lee1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 jmd36@dana.ucc.nau.edu
Public Attitudes Toward Prescribed Fire and Selective Thinning in Arizona. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Putting the Pieces TogetherS/April 25-28,2001)
A study conducted in Arizona during the intense summer fire season of 2000 reveals public attitudes and beliefs about the practices used for forest health restoration and fire-hazard reduction. Survey participants were asked about their viewpoints on prescribed fire and selective thinning as well as their preferences for treating overstocked forests. Results illustrate the changing role thinning and burning are assuming in our culture as the vast majority of those surveyed support some use of thinning (98%) and burning (94%). Analysis offers some insight into which factors affect attitudes and opinions. Attitudes about thinning and burning correlate with level of awareness, whether or not a person has seen the practices in use, the distance one lives from a national forest, and how often one spends time in the forest. Beliefs about the outcomes of restoration practices, such as how well fuel loads are reduced and effects on air quality and wildlife habitat also factor into attitude development. By knowing which beliefs are influential in forming attitudes, managers can gain a greater understanding of how the general public views current management plans.

Hospodarsky1, Dr. Denver, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Framework for Organizing Human Dimensions Research Programs at the Wildland-Urban Interface: with Focus on Issues and Needs in Fire Risk Reduction and Ecological Restoration. (September 1998 - December 1999)
The purpose of this study is to develop a framework for organizing human dimensions research programs in the wildland-urban interface of southwestern forests with focus on issues and needs in fire risk reduction and ecological restoration in the Flagstaff area in north central Arizona. Ecosystem management of the wildland-urban interface, such as Flagstaff area efforts by the Grand Canyon Forests Partnerships and participating land management agencies at fire risk reduction and ecological restoration, requires the integration of social, economic, and ecological considerations at broadening spatial and temporal scales. Research in support of ecosystem management also must integrate these same topical and scale factors in order to be effective, with special emphasis on the social context of management. Such research has been handicapped by the lack of integrative frameworks for developing coherent and comprehensive management research programs. Objectives are to apply a biological-social systems theoretical model useful to identifying local human dimensions issues and research needs and to make the model operational by making empirically measurable the concepts of the model locally and regionally.
Specific tasks include: (1) Apply a conceptual-theoretical model of human dimensions in bio-social systems produced through from previous research for the Coconino National Forest to the Flagstaff wildland-urban interface. (2) Translate the model's human dimensions elements into terms locally relevant, by developing empirical descriptors of the theoretical model elements through social content analysis of ecological restoration and fire risk reduction efforts. (3) Interpret the social content of the wildland-urban interface system in terms of social research needs and methods to provide the framework for organizing human dimensions research program.

Lee1, Dr. Martha E., Dr. Denver C. Hospodarsky1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 Martha.Lee@nau.ed
Analysis of public attitudes and intentions toward Forest Health Restoration and Fire Risk Reduction. (June 1999 - January 2002)
The purpose of this study is to better understand the human-posed barriers to forest health restoration and fire risk reduction in the wildland-urban interface, and identify means to overcome those barriers. Two main research objectives will be accomplished: (1) to analyze public attitudes and beliefs about various stand treatments to restore forest health and reduce fire hazard; and (2) to draw conclusions enabling managers to anticipate public concerns regarding the methods used and outcomes resulting from treatments, and that direct the development and implementation of education and other public involvement activities to build understanding and support for management activities.
The study entails a comprehensive analysis of an existing database compiled from a recent survey of Arizona resident attitudes toward forest restoration and fire risk reduction. The information will be analyzed on three types of Arizona residents: 1) those who live within the forest where treatments occur; 2) residents of the nearby urban area; and 3) residents of the state. These three groups will be examined because evidence suggests the groups will vary in their support for treatments. Descriptive statistics will be computed to determine overall support for forest stand treatments. Questionnaire respondents will then be analyzed as belonging to two groups: those with positive and those with negative attitudes and intentions toward stand treatments to restore ecosystems and reduce fire risk. The two groups will be compared on a variety of measures describing respondent's relationships with the forest environment.

ORGANIZATIONAL

Covington1, Dr. W. Wallace, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5018
Flagstaff Wildland-Urban Interface Fuels Management Project Development and Experimentation. (May 1999 - June 2001)
The purpose of this study is to initiate a cooperative wildland/urban interface fuels treatment and forest structure restoration research project in the area around Flagstaff, Arizona. This agreement covers development, experimentation, analysis, and reporting phases of the project.
Specific tasks include: (1) In the development and experimentation phase of the interface project: a. Participate in project planning, coordination, and consultation between the Forest Service, Grand Canyon Forests Partnership, and others; b. Provide technical assistance and review with development of wildland/urban interface treatment prescriptions; c. Provide technical assistance and review with selection and scheduling of experimental sites; d. Prepare field maps for experimental unit location and other features based on geographic information system data from Forest Service and other sources; e. Install a set of permanent plots in each experimental treatment unit, collecting pre-treatment and post-treatment data on overstory and understory vegetation, tree canopy, forest floor, woody debris, and photo-points, as well as dendroecological data collection from tree increment cores and fire-scarred samples; f. Assist in the design of ecological monitoring systems of larger-scale treatments for subsequent measurement with possible future funding; and (2) In the analysis and reporting phase of the interface project: a. Analyze the presettlement and current fire regime characteristics at the Coconino National Forest and Fort Valley Experimental Forest experimental sites based upon fire scar collections, historical records from Coconino National Forest, and other information; b. Analyze presettlement forest structure over the experimental units covered by the permanent plot sampling using dendroecological, modeling, and historical data; c. Analyze conditions of forest structure, tree age and size distributions, canopy closure, herbaceous and shrub composition, and forest floor fuel loading over the experimental units; d. Prepare a comprehensive report to present and interpret findings; e. Assist the Grand Canyon Forests Partnership and Forest Service staff in utilizing data for reports to interested groups and the general public.

Moseley1, Cassandra, Brett KenCairn2, 1) University of Florida, Department of Political Science, PO Box 117325, Gainsville, FL 32611 cmoseley@polisci.ufl.edu, 2) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry
Similar Issues, Different Collaborations: Comparing the Applegate and Grand Canyon Forests Partnerships. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Partnership groups and collaborative natural resource management initiatives have become increasingly common in the last decade, especially in the American West. However, self-identified "partnership" groups can be remarkably different structurally, politically, and strategically. In this paper, we will argue that these structural, political and strategic differences can greatly effect what partnerships accomplish substantively. We will make this argument by comparing two forest partnership groups: the Applegate Partnership, organized in southwest Oregon in 1992, and the Grand Canyon Forests Partnership, which came together in 1997 in northern Arizona. Both were founded to reduce forest conflict and undertake ecosystem-based management and restoration in fire dominated ecosystems. Both attempted to accomplish this mission by bringing together people with a diversity of perspectives and interests. However, these partnership groups differ most markedly in the types of people who participate, how participants view their role as representatives, and the ways in which participants link to their constituent interests. In this paper, we argue that these differences affect the types of political challenges that the partnerships encounter, the ease with which they innovate, and types of agreements they reach.

Randall-Parker1, Tammy, 1) Coconino National Forest
Fort Valley Ecosystem Project. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Putting the Pieces TogetherS/April 25-28,2001)
This restoration project is the first from the Grand Canyon Forests Partnership as a cooperator with the Coconino National Forest. Primary restoration objectives include: restoring low intensity, frequent fire for both community and ecological protection; restoring tree/grass patterns and tree structure that favors and enhances existing and future yellow pines; restoring more normal water transport and cycling; and restoring wildlife reproduction and migration patterns. Restoration approaches being tested and demonstrated include six thinning models and a number of prescribed fire applications.

Smith1, H. B. "Doc", Taylor McKinnon2, John Gerritsma3 Paul Summerfelt4, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5018 Doc.Smith@Nau.edu, 2) Grand Canyon Trust, 3) Coconino National Forest, 4) Flagstaff Fire Department
The Grand Canyon Forests Partnership and Foundation: A review of Restoration efforts. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
A summary and review of the 100,000 acres of treatment designed to restore the forest to a more sustainable condition and to reduce fire threat to the City of Flagstaff. This project resulted from concern over the disastrous fire season of 1966 around Flagstaff. Some 17 organizations, agencies, and groups have banded together to develop practices to meet the environmental, economic and social concerns associated with forest restoration. Treatments include heavily researched and monitored plots in and around Ft. Valley on the Coconino NF. Treatments include meadow restoration, trail relocation to protect Mexican spotted owls, road management, fire hazard reduction, restoration of understory vegetation, burning, habitat enhancement and mistletoe study.

Summerfelt1, Paul, Allan Farnsworth2, 1) Flagstaff Fire Department, 211 W. Aspen, Flagstaff, AZ 86001 psummefelt@ci.flagstaff.az.us 2) US Forest Service, 5075 N. Highway 89, Flagstaff, AZ 86004
Flagstaff Interface Treatment Prescription: Results in the Wildland/Urban Interface. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Putting the Pieces TogetherS/April 25-28,2001)
Over the past five years, fire managers in the Flagstaff Wildland/Urban Interface have developed a system of socially welcomed forest treatments. The approach incorporates forestry and fire science, as well as community and neighborhood involvements as vital components.
Flagstaff, Arizona is a high elevation (7,000') metropolitan area located in north-central Arizona surrounded by a dense ponderosa pine forest. The annual number of wildland fire starts in and immediately adjacent to the interface area averages 200 per year, with some years recording over 300 fires. Based upon existing hazards and values-at-risk, wildfire is the #1 fire threat to the community.
By the 1880's, the forests were subjected to intense livestock grazing and timber harvest operations. The removal of most of the grass, coupled with a period of relatively wet weather and the exceptional cone crop, saw many new seedlings established. For most of the 20th century, a policy of active fire suppression - almost to the point of fire exclusion - was embraced and practiced. As a result, many of the pine stands are overstocked with small and mid-sized second-growth.
We will discuss program goals, silvicultural prescriptions, tree designation, cutting techniques, utilization, slash treatment, prescribed fire, maintenance, community involvement, benefits, and lessons learned.

Summerfelt1, Paul1, 1) Flagstaff Fire Department, 211 W. Aspen, Flagstaff, AZ 86001 psummerfelt@ci.flagstaff.az.us
Interface Success: One City's Story. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Putting the Pieces TogetherS/April 25-28,2001)
The Flagstaff Fire Department Fuel Management Program is a unique approach to community safety. Begun in 1996 it now treats 1000+ acres/year - tree thinning, brush disposal, and prescribed burning. Focus will be on "how and why".
Flagstaff, Arizona is a high elevation (7,000') metropolitan area located in north-central Arizona surrounded by a dense ponderosa pine forest. The annual number of wildland fire starts in and immediately adjacent to the interface area averages 200 per year, with some years recording over 300 fires. Based upon existing hazards and values-at-risk, wildfire is the #1 fire threat to the community.
The 1996 fire season was a community awakening to the reality of fire and the overall problems associated with existing forest conditions. Many of the pine stands are overstocked with small and mid-sized second-growth. Basal areas commonly range from 150 to well over 200. Tree numbers range from several hundred to a few thousand per acre. Canopy closures typically range from 50 to 70% but often approach 100%.
Today, the Fuel Management program is a national leader. Community support is widespread and enthusiastic. How did this occur? How is it possible to treat over 1000 acres per year - thinning and prescribed fire - in an interface setting?

Taylor1, Elizabeth L., 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry and the Grand Canyon Forest Partnership, Public Involvement Team, Flagstaff, AZ Liz.Taylor@NAU.EDU
The Community in Collaboration: Public Involvement in the Grand Canyon Forest Partnership. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
"Never be afraid to try something new. Remember, amateurs built the ark. Professionals built the Titanic." Public involvement plays a crucial role in community collaborative efforts directed at restoration and conservation. Public support often determines whether or not restoration and conservation efforts proceed, let alone succeed. The mission of the Grand Canyon Forest Partnership (GCFP) public involvement program is captured by three words: inform, involve, invest. Inform diverse constituencies of the central issues related to restoration and protection of our forests. Involve people in a range of activities that give them a chance to demonstrate and experience responsible stewardship towards their forests.

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Economic Component

UTILIZATION

Gould1, Peter, Walker Chancellor1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, Ecological Restoration Institute, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011 pjg2@dana.ucc.nau.edu
How is Small Diameter Wood Being Used Around Flagstaff, Arizona? (Poster Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Restoration treatments within the ponderosa pine ecosystem that surrounds Flagstaff, Arizona generate a large quantity of small diameter logs. While these small diameter logs have very little market value, they are cheap (often free) material that people are using for a variety of projects. We are examining how people within the area are using this plentiful resource in unique ways.

Lowell1, Eini C., 1) USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, PO Box 3890, Portland, OR 97208, Lowell_Eini/r6pnw_portland@fs.fed.us
Lumber Recovery from Small Diameter Ponderosa Pine from Flagstaff, Arizona. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Thousands of acres of densely stocked ponderosa pine forests surround Flagstaff, Arizona. These stands are at risk from both a forest health viewpoint (insect and disease) and also are susceptible to uncharacteristically severe fires. Stand density management activity can be expensive, but product recovery from the thinned material could help defray removal costs. This project evaluated the yield and economic return of lumber recovered from small-diameter, suppressed ponderosa pine. A sample of 150 trees ranging from 6- to 16- inches in diameter at breast height was selected. Half of the sample was sawn as dimension lumber and the other half as appearance grade lumber. Value recovery depends upon both the volume and the lumber grade recovered from a log. Lumber grade recovery is important, as higher grades of lumber command higher prices. This study yielded about 25% No.2 and Better Common for appearance lumber with the majority of lumber (66%) graded No.3 Common. About 50% of the dimension lumber was No.2 and Better, with very little of the highest grade produced. Volume recovery was slightly higher for dimension lumber, yet the lumber from the logs sawn for appearance grade was worth significantly more than that from the logs sawn for dimension lumber.

Lowell 1, Eini C., Jamie Barbour1, Roger Fight1, 1) USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station, P.O. Box 3890, Portland, OR 97208 elowell@fs.fed
Wood Product Opportunities from Fort Valley Project Ponderosa Pine. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Putting the Pieces TogetherS/April 25-28,2001)
The wood products industry that previously existed in Arizona and New Mexico was geared toward manufacturing appearance grade products. These products provided mills with a high economic return but required large, old ponderosa pine. This resource is no longer available from federal lands and the types of materials that might become available from fuels reduction and ecosystem restoration projects will have very different physical characteristics. Resource managers and manufacturers need to work together to find ways to develop a set of harvesting techniques and wood product options that can be combined to help defray the cost of these projects. We will report information on the volume yields and piece sizes of logs from the Fort Valley Project. Wood product recovery information from these logs will be combined with harvesting and manufacturing costs to produce financial information with the Financial Evaluation of Ecosystem Management Activities (FEEMA) software. This will illustrate some of the wood product options that might provide positive net returns to manufacturers in the Flagstaff area. The wood products industry that previously existed in Arizona and New Mexico was geared toward manufacturing appearance grade products. These products provided mills with a high economic return but required large, old ponderosa pine. This resource is no longer available from federal lands and the types of materials that might become available from fuels reduction and ecosystem restoration projects will have very different physical characteristics. Resource managers and manufacturers need to work together to find ways to develop a set of harvesting techniques and wood product options that can be combined to help defray the cost of these projects. We will report information on the volume yields and piece sizes of logs from the Fort Valley Project. Wood product recovery information from these logs will be combined with harvesting and manufacturing costs to produce financial information with the Financial Evaluation of Ecosystem Management Activities (FEEMA) software. This will illustrate some of the wood product options that might provide positive net returns to manufacturers in the Flagstaff area.

Mead1, Steve, 1) NAU College of Engineering and Technology, PO Box 15600, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Innovative Structural Applications for Small Round Wood. (April 2001 - June 2002)
The purpose of this study is to demonstrate and research practical applications for small wood products. Specific objectives include: (1) To construct a full scale prototype of an interlaced round wood arch bridge; (2) To perform a design feasibility analysis of the prototype that will help refine design and connection details, and establish basic costs for labor, material, and equipment; (3) To perform basic engineering studies that can be used to improve understanding of the structural characteristics of interlaced round wood structures; (4) To showcase small diameter wood possibilities at the Flagstaff Forest Festival; and (5) To develop promotional materials that can help demonstrate innovative uses of small diameter wood products.

COSTS OF RESTORATION

Brown1, Mathieu, Brett KenCairn1, Debra Larson2, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011 mfb3@dana.ucc.nau.edu, 2) NAU Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Paying for Restoration: Market Ideas for Small Diameter Roundwood. (Oral Presentation - ERI: Steps Toward Stewardship / April 25-27, 2000)
Current approaches to ponderosa pine restoration in northern Arizona call for the removal of substantial numbers of small diameter trees in an effort to reestablish forest conditions more resilient to climatic and other biological-social changes. Currently the lack of well developed markets for small diameter trees jeopardize the capacity to implement these restoration treatments in the areas of high restoration priority. Without new markets for these materials, these treatments will depend on public or private subsidies. Given the enormous acreage facing similar situations across the interior West, finding adequate and consistent funding from such sources seems unlikely. Without successful alternatives, many of these landscapes at risk could experience large scale disruptive changes.
An obvious solution to this problem is to find markets and value added processes for small diameter material, the sale of which can help to pay for restoration. A variety of products and markets are being evaluated. This paper examines one such effort to develop a roundwood building system that could make small diameter ponderosa pine valuable as a building material. The focus of this project is to utilize 4" to 9" ponderosa pine in the construction of roundwood living units. Preliminary studies show substantial demand for roundwood homes, particularly traditionally shaped Hogan units on the Navajo Nation in Northeastern Arizona. This demand could result in the use of large amounts of small diameter trees. By estimating the willingness to pay for finished homes a range of values can be determined for small diameter ponderosa pine. Development of this market and industry can result in a positive value for small diameter roundwood helping to decrease the costs and increase the scale of restoration.

Fox1, Dr. Bruce E., Dr. P.J. Daugherty1, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff AZ 86011
A Cost Analysis of Wildland-Urban Interface Forest Management Treatments in the Southwestern Ponderosa Pine Type. (September 1998 - December 2001)
The purpose of this study is to initiate a study that addresses the costs of forest management treatments, designed to meet fire risk reduction and forest restoration objectives in wildland-interface areas with emphasis on the areas around Flagstaff, Arizona. This study is a critical component in providing economic insights to appropriate forest management activities which are economically viable and sustainable.
Specific tasks include : Conduct an extensive review of the pertinent literature to help develop treatment alternatives; evaluate the feasibility of alternative equipment configurations for accomplishing wildland-urban interface harvesting treatments; and conduct an in-depth analysis of one or more of the harvesting systems used in accomplishing harvesting treatments in the Flagstaff interface area. And, completion of time-motion studies of forest health restoration and fuels management treatments being implemented under different stand conditions and to add an additional treatment of demonstration implementation of a mulching machine to process residual fuels after thinning.

Kim1, Dr. Yeon-Su, 1) NAU College of Ecosystem Science and Management, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, Flagstaff, AZ 86011
Economic Benefits of Biological Restoration and Fire Risk Reduction: Application of the Hedonic Property Price Model to Wildland-Urban Interface. (August 1999 - December 2001)
The purpose of this study is to estimate the economic benefits of ecological restoration and fire risk reduction in the Flagstaff wildland-urban interface. Ecological restoration and fire risk reduction efforts in northern Arizona have been increasing in recent years. Wildland management practices for restoring and sustaining ecosystem health improve the living environment for neighboring residents by reducing the risk of catastrophic wildfire. These management practices also enhance intangible benefits that people derive from wildlands, such as scenic view and recreation opportunities. Since these benefits do not have market prices that represent their fair values, they can be overlooked in the decision-making process when interests and land uses conflict. This study will develop economic values of these intangible benefits, and the values will be examined relative to alternative vegetation management strategies, including forest fuel reduction and forest restoration. The results will provide monetary measures for these non-market benefits of ecological restoration and fire risk reduction. They will also help wildland managers to identify the wildland attributes of highest value to neighboring property owners.
Specific tasks include: 1. Compile a database with the information of properties, such as sale records, assessed values, land characteristics and a GIS layer with property boundaries. The potential information sources are Coconino County, the City of Flagstaff, Northern Arizona Association of Realtors, ALRIS (Arizona Land Resources Information System), and Arizona State Department of Revenue. 2. Collect the information about forest conditions and identify the locations of ecological restoration and fire risk reduction treatments near each property; 3. Explore the possible uses of GIS in measuring perceived locational amenities and their changes due to ecological restoration and fire-risk reduction treatments; 4. Estimate a hedonic property price model and assess the contributions of wildland ecosystems to neighboring property values; 5. Compare the differences in estimated values with respect to applied management levels, the degree of fire risk and different neighboring ecosystem characteristics.

Larson1, Dr. Debra, Dr. Richard Mirth1, 1) NAU College of Engineering and Technology, Box 15600, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-1560
Opportunities for Funding Wildland-Urban Interface Fuels Reduction Programs (End Date: October 2001)
The purpose of this study is to advance the state of knowledge regarding the potential for funding forest restoration initiatives, in the Southwest, through the sale and use of the resulting removed woody biomass. The intent is to concentrate on the local economies and the ponderosa pine forests of northern Arizona, with special attention given to the greater Flagstaff-Coconino National Forest wildland-urban interface as initially represented by Grand Canyon Forests Partnership's Fort Valley 10K project.
Specific tasks include: a. Adapt, refine, and broaden the previously developed reports, including relate the potential demand and fiber use information to the Fort Valley 10K project in addition to the longer-term Partnership project and other regional efforts; thoroughly investigate use opportunities with respect to existing regional industries like Precision Pine, Fort Apache Timber Company, Forest Energy, High Desert Investments; determine specific quantity, size, quality, willingness to pay, and other needed fiber characteristics per primary industry; survey the missing existing use industries like wood brokers, poles, railroad ties, posts, rails, and various grades of chips and strands. Develop restoration and fuels management and material recovery costs, including compile and analyze the existing cost and fiber quantity data on recent local thinning projects; verify assumptions regarding what entity bears what costs; collect transportation costs and user purchase information's. Design a log yard and a management scenario, including identify existing purchasers with specific information on fiber needs; design scenario considering management (and ownership) by an existing enterprise; examine land availability and accessibility requirements; design an efficient material handling, market responsive yard. Interact with other similar type management efforts and furnish a status report summarizing current activities by other organizations like the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest Blue Ridge Wildland/Urban Interface Pilot Project, the San Juan National Forest projects, and the Colorado Front Range initiative.
In addition, this project has been expanded to include; (1) collect additional information fo